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ELEMENTARY 

AGRICULTURE 



HATCH AND HASELWOOD 





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Class _ 

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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



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ELEMBIHTflRY flGRIGULTURE 



WITH 



FRflGTIGftL ARITflMETIG 



K. L. HATCH 

AND 

J. A. HASELWOOD 



CHICAGO 

R. K. ROW & COMPANY 

1906 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 

Two CoDies Received 

MAY 8 1906 

. Copyright Entry 
CLASS CL XXc. No, 

/H- on "fG 

COPY B. 






Copyrighted 1905, 1906 by 
K. L. Hatch 



PREFACE. 



As the population of our country increases, it is 
fast 'becoming evident that two things must be done : 
poorer soil must be cultivated, and what is already 
under cultivation must be made to produce more. In 
either case more thoughtful methods in agriculture 
are absolutely essential. The farmer of to-morrow, 
who is to-day the farmer's boy, must know how to 
farm better than his father does. In order to do 
this, he must acquire a more or less complete knowl- 
edge of the sciences on which agriculture is based. 

The farmer of the future must be able to read farm 
papers understandingly, or better still, he should be 
trained for his life work in some agricultural school 
as doctors, lawyers and teachers are now trained. It 
is the purpose of this book to give to the farmer's 
child, who studies it, a start in such necessary knowl- 
edge. The language used is plain and simple, and 
may be readily understood by any bright boy or girl 
of twelve years of age. All scientific terms are de- 
fined in a simple way whenever it has been necessary 
to introduce them. 

Each chapter is followed by a set of practical farm 
problems to be used as exercises for the arithmetic 



class. These problems have a definite relation to the 
subject matter which they follow, as well as a close 
relation to farm life. It is believed that the solving 
of these will enable the farmer's children to solve 
ordinary practical problems arising on the farm, as 
well as the more complex ones of experimental agri- 
culture. 

It is hoped that the careful study of this book will 
lead to a deeper interest in farm life, and to a more 
careful and systematic study of the soils, crops, feeds, 
fertilizers, and the like, by the children in the rural 
schools and perhaps, incidentally, by the farmers 
themselves. 

It is a wholesome indication of the trend of edu- 
cational thought, that the Legislatures of several states 
have made compulsory the study of Agriculture in the 
district schools. 

We trust that this little book, by combining the 
subjects of arithmetic and agriculture, will be of ma- 
terial assistance to teachers in their efforts to do ef- 
fective work in both branches. H.&H. 



CONTENTS 



Chapter I — WHY PLANTS GROW 9 



Chapter II — THE PLANT AND THE WATER i8 

Chapter III — PLANT FOODS 23 

.Chapter IV — SOILS 30 

Chapter V — THE SOIL AND THE CROPS 36 

Chapter VI — WEARING OUT THE SOIL 43 

Chapter VII — LEGUMES 48 

Chapter VIII — TILLING THE SOIL 54 

Chapter IX — DRAINING THE SOIL 62 

Chapter X — THE CROP 68 

Chapter XI — INSECTS AND DISEASES THAT IN- 
JURE THE CROPS 75 

Chapter XII — THE FIGHT AGAINST WEEDS 84 

Chapter XHI-THE STOCK ON THE FARM 89 

Chapter XIV — FEEDING THE STOCK 98 



Chapter XV — THE THREE C'S— COWS, CORN AND 

CLOVER Ill 

Chapter XVI — THE DAIRY 117 

Chapter XVII — POULTRY 127 

Chapter XVIII — SOME SPECIAL CROPS 133 

Chapter XIX — FARM BUILDINGS 145 

Chapter XX — FARM ACCOUNTS 154 

Chapter XXI — FORESTRY 161 

Chapter XXII — HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS.. 171 

Chapter XXIII — SCHOOL GARDENING 177 

Chapter XXIV— HOME GARDENING 182 

Addenda — BARN PLAN, BARN VENTILATION, 

CORN JUDGING, STOCK JUDGING.. 186 



ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

The tables used in this book are taken from the 
pubHshed reports of the United States Department 
of Agriculture, and adapted to the needs of this pub- 
lication. Only averages and approximate values are 
given. Conditions vary so widely that accuracy is 
impossible. The value of the tables lies in familiar- 
ity w^ith their use rather than in the numerical results 
obtained from them. Grateful acknowledgment is 
also made to the University of Wisconsin for material 
used in illustration and to the friends who have given 
us valuable assistance and suggestions. H. & H. 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



CHAPTER I 



WHY PLANTS GROW 



If you were asked, "What makes a pig grow?" 
you would reply : "Milk, grass, corn, etc.," but if 
you were asked, "What makes a plant grow?" would 
you answer so readily, "The food which it consumes ?" 
But this is precisely what you should reply. Plants, 
like animals, must have food and drink, and like ani- 
mals, they perish without them. At some later time, 
we shall tell you what these foods are, in such a 
way that you will readily recognize them at sight. 
For the present, however, we shall observe the way 
in which plants grow and find out, if possible, the 
source from which they get their first food. 

The little pig, or lamb, or calf lives and grows upon 
the milk of its mother until it is large enough to 



10 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



search for its own food. It then begins to use the 
same food as the larger animals of its kind. Now, 
from what source does the little plant get its first 
food? 

If you will carefully remove the skin from a bean, 
that has been soaked over night, and then separate it 
into two parts, you will discover two tiny leaves near 
one end, between the two halves of the bean. Extend- 





A BEAN PLANT. 
A DICOTYLEDON. 



A SPLIT BEAN. 

E — Embryo. 

C— Cotyledon. 



A CORN PLANT, 

A MONOCOTYLEDON 



ing in the opposite direction is a tiny stem and root. 
This little plant is called the germ or embryo, and it is 
this germ which later develops into a full grown plant. 
The two halves of the bean serve as a storehouse for 
food, and are called cotyledons. If a kernel of corn 
is taken instead, and examined in the same way, the 
same kind of little plant will be found. Instead of 



WHY PLANTS GROW 1] 

two leaves pointing upward, as in the bean, but one 
will be found in the corn. The peanut will be found 
to resemble the bean in this respect; wheat and rye 
resemble the corn. 

In the spring, as soon as the young plants begin to 
come up, go out into the garden and held and notice 
how many leaves are first seen from the seed. In one 
list write the names of all plants showing but a 
single leaf or sprout, and name that list monocotyle- 
dons. In another list write the names of all plants 
showing a pair of first leaves and call these plants 
dicotyledons, and you will have begun the systematic 
study of botany. If you are much interested, you 
will not wait for spring, but will want to begin now, 
which you may do by planting all kinds . of seeds 
grown on the farm, in sawdust in an old pan, kept 
in a light, warm place. You can then examine these 
seeds from day to day and watch their growth. 

If you keep these seeds wet they will grow well 
for a few days, and then they will wither and die. 
Now, why is this? Because the little plantlet lives 
on the food contained in the seed until this food is 
all used up, and the plant has attained sufficient size 
and strength to get its food from the soil. But it 
cannot get sufficient food from the sawdust and, of 
course, it starves to death, just as a little pig would 
starve if it were not given sufficient food. 



12 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

When asked why plants store up so much food 
matter in seeds we usually answer, *'To furnish food 
for animals and men." Nothing could be further 
from the truth. Nature intended this food matter, 
not for man, but for the little plantlets, found in the 
seeds, to use for their own growth until they are 
large enough to get it for themselves directly from 




Drawing from life, showing effect of cutting away a 
portion of the cotyledons on the growth of the plant. The 
same results will be obtained by using small and large 
seeds. Try it. 

the soil. Make this experiment : From soaked beans 
or kernels of corn, cut away about two-thirds of this 
food matter, being very careful not to injure the em- 
bryos, and watch the sprouting of what remains. These 



WHY PLANTS GROW 13 

sprouts will wither and die much sooner than those 
from perfect seeds, because not enough nourishment 
is left to supply them with food until they are large 
enough to get it from the soil. This should teach us 
that we cannot be too careful in the selection of large, 
well developed seeds if we wish strong, healthy plants 
and, consequently, good crops. 

Every farmer's child must have noticed how pota- 
toes shrivel up when they sprout in the cellar. This 
is due to the fact that the young sprout uses up a 
part of the potato as food for its own growth. 

But there are other things necessary for the growth 
of plants. Grain rarely grows in the bin or stack, 
and if it does, you will say that it is because the grain 
is too wet. Moisture, then, is another requisite for 
plant growth. But even wet grain fails to grow in 
the winter time because heat is necessary. Neither 
will crops grow in ground covered with water, be- 
cause all growing plants must have air, and much 
water keeps the air out of the soil. There is still 
another requisite to plant growth, and that is light. 
No plant grows well in dense shade, and, without 
sunlight, plants always have a yellow and sickly ap- 
pearance. 

Summing up: Good seeds and proper conditions 
of soil, moisture, air, heat and Hght are essential to 
plant growth, and a part of the study of agriculture 



14 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

consists in determining- just how to control these 
conditions. ''What?" yon ask, "Can the farmer con- 
trol the amount of heat, air and moisture in the soil ?" 
He can, and it is the purpose of this little book to 
teach the farmer's children how it may be done. 

A good bulletin on the subject treated in this chap- 
ter may be had free on application to the Secretary of 
Agriculture, Washington, D. C, or to your Senator or 
Representative in Congress. 

Write for Farmers' Bulletin, No. 111. — The Farmer's 
Interest in Good Seed. 

Table I. 
Table showing legal weight per bushel of farm prod- 
ucts in the majority of states: 

Wheat 60 lbs. 

Potatoes 60 lbs. 

Peas 60 lbs. 

Beans 60 lbs. 

Root crops (average) 60 lbs. 

Onions 57 lbs. 

Corn (shelled) 56 lbs. 

Rye 56 lbs. 

Barley 48 lbs. 

Buckwheat 48 lbs. 

Oats 32 lbs. 

Hsindy Values. 

A bushel requires about 1% cubic feet of space. 
A bushel of corn in the ear requires about 3 cubic 
feet of space. 



WHY PLANTS GROW 15 

A barrel of water requires about 4 cubic feet of space. 
A ton of hay fills about 512 cubic feet of space, or 
8x8x8 cubic feet. 

A cubic foot of water weighs 62^ pounds. 

Note I. All the above should be memorized. 

Note II. Pupils should also memorize tables of 
avoirdupois weight, dry measure, liquid measure, long 
measure, square measure, and cubic measure with all 
the necessary abbreviations. 

Problems. 

1. How many pounds of wheat are grown on an 
acre yielding 25 bushels ? 

2. How many pounds are grown on eight acres 
at the same rate? How many tons? 

3. How many square rods in an acre? How 
many pounds would that be per square rod? 

4. What is the value of the above crop per acre 
at 80c per bushel? 

5. At the same rate what is the value of all the 
wheat grown on a piece of land containing 240 square 
rods? 

6. At 90c per bushel what is the value of the 
wheat grown on an acre if the yield is 20 bushels? 

7. Which is the more valuable, the crop in prob- 
lem 4 or that in problem 6? 

8. If 20 bushels of 90c wheat can be grown on 
an acre, how many pounds is that per acre? What 
is the price per pound ? How many pounds are grown 



16 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

on a square rod? What is the vahie of the wheat 
grown on a square rod? 

9. At the same rate and price, what is the value 
of the wheat grown on a piece of ground 14 rods 
wide and 20 rods long? 

10. How many acres in a field 40 rods long and 
24 rods wide? 

11. If a man can plow 2 acres per day, how long 
will it take him to plow the above field? What will 
it cost at $2 per day? 

12. What will be the cost of plowing a 40 acre 
field at the same rate? 

13. If a man and team can seed 8 acres per day 
how long will it take to seed a 40 acre field? What 
will it cost at $2 per day? 

14. At 50c per acre what will be the cost of cut- 
ting this crop? 

15. It will cost about $.25 per acre to stack the 
grain. Find the cost of stacking. 

16. What is the threshing bill at 2 cents per 
bushel? Find the entire cost of the crop. 

17. If the yield has been 20 bushels per acre, 
worth 90 cents per bushel, how much has the farmer 
made over and above the entire cost of labor? 

18. How much has he made if the crop has 
yielded 25 bushels per acre, worth $.80 per bushel ? 

19. Have any items of the cost of producing this 



WHY PLANTS GROW 17 

wheat been omitted? If so, what? Should we allow 
for them? Let us do so and find the result. 

20. With a crop of 50 bushels of shelled corn per 
acre worth $.40 per bushel work the same series of 
problems, omitting such as do not apply to corn rais- 
ing. 

To the Teacher: The above list of problems is in- 
tended to suggest others. Ask the pupils to find the 
current prices of corn, oats, barley, hay, etc. Ask them 
what is considered a good crop per acre of each of these. 
Ask them the cost of labor. Have them furnish all the 
necessary data. This they can get from home. Make 
up a list of problems similar to the above from data, 
furnished by the pupils. Let one pupil furnish data 
for one set of problems, another pupil furnish data for 
another set, and so on. Pass the honors around. You 
should have both parents and pupils interested before 
you have progressed far with this work. Observe this 
policy throughout the course of instruction in this 
branch. 



CHAPTER II 

THE PLANT AND THE WATER 

We have already seen that the seed furnishes the 
food for the Httle plantlet until it is large enough to 
get food from the soil, in much the same way that the 
mother cow furnishes milk for her calf until the calf 
is large enough to find its own food. If asked, 
''What are the foods which a cow eats?" you would 
probably answer, "Hay, straw, fodder, oats, bran, etc." 
Not many of us could answer so readily if asked to 
give a list of plant foods. There are but a dozen of 
them, and half of these are nearly as well known to 
you as cattle foods. The most familiar are, water, 
lime, iron-rust, soda, ammonia and sand. The other 
six are magnesia, potash and four acids, viz. : car- 
bonic, phosphoric, hydrochloric and sulphuric. 

Now let us consider these plant foods. Every one 
knows that plants cannot live without water, but 
few persons stop to think of the enormous amount 
of water consumed daily by an acre of growing vege- 



THE PLANT AND THE WATER 



10 



tation. You may make this experiment: Put exact- 
ly the same amount of water in each of two similar 
vessels — tumblers, glass fruit- jars or even old tin cans 
will answer. Pull up a thrifty bunch of clover and 
put its roots into one of these vessels of water. Stand 
both on a table or shelf side by side. In a few days 
you will notice that the water in the vessel containing 
the clover is disappearing much more rapidly than 
that in the other vessel. As soon as the clover begins 
to wilt take it out of the water and by measuring 




Relative amounts of water at the 
beginning of the experiment. 



Relative amounts of water at the 
end of the experiment. 



compare what remains in the two vessels. Of course, 
both have lost by evaporation — that is, both have 
"dried up," as we say, — but, if the vessels are of the 
same size, there should be equal evaporation. Why, 
then, should not the remainders be equal? Because 
the clover plant has been using up water. The dif- 
ference between what remains in the two cans repre- 
sents the amount used by the clover plant. 



20 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

Plants make use of water in two ways. In the 
first place, they use it as food just the same as animals 
do. In the second place, a plant cannot eat solid food. 
It has neither mouth nor teeth and it must suck in its 
food in liquid form through its roots. The solid foods, 
mentioned above, dissolve in water — just as sugar 
dissolves in coffee — and in this dissolved condition 
they are easily taken in % the roots of the plant. 
Substances like salt, which dissolves in water, are said 
to be soluble and, when found in the plant in this dis- 
solved form, the liquid is called sap. The solid food, 
with a portion of the water, is taken from the sap to 
be used in plant growth, and the remaining water is 
passed off to the air through little holes in the leaves. 
These, then, are the reasons why plants need so much 
water. Grain uses up thousands of tons of water per 
acre during the growing season. 

But you ask: "Can the farmer regulate the 
amount of moisture in the soil? Does not that de- 
pend wholly upon rainfall?" No, it does not depend 
upon rainfall. If the ground is too wet, the farmer 
can drain it by ditching or tiling and, by careful culti- 
vation, he can keep the moisture in the soil in times of 
drought. Just how this is done is left for later dis- 
cussion. 



THE PLANT AND THE WATER 21 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.— Farmer's 
Bulletins. 

No. 46. — Irrigation in Humid Climates. 

No. 116. — Irrigation in Fruit Growing. 

No. 138. — Irrigation in Field and Garden. 

No. 158.— How to Build Small Irrigation Ditches. 

Table II. 

Table showing proportions of water in farm crops. 

One bushel of root crops contains about 55 pounds 
of water. 

One bushel of potatoes contains about 45 pounds of 
water. 

One bushel of corn (dry, shelled) contains about 5 
pounds of water. 

One bushel of wheat contains about 6 pounds of water. 

One bushel of oats contains about 3 pounds of water. 

One ton of dry hay contains about 300 pounds of water. 

One ton of green feed contains from 1,500 to 1,800 
pounds of water. 

Note: This represents only the water left in the 
plants and seeds as a part of them. By far the greater 
amount used by the plant passes off to the air through 
the pores in the leaves. 



22 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

Problems. 

1. If rain falls an inch deep on the level, how 
many cubic inches is that per square foot ? Per square 
yard ? Per square rod ? How many cubic feet per 
square rod ? Per acre ? 

2. About how many barrels of water fall on an 
acre with i inch rainfall? 

3. How many tons will this water weigh? 

4. The total rainfall during the year in Wiscon- 
sin is about four feet. What does the water that falls 
on a square yard of ground, during the year, weigh? 
On a square rod? How many tons to the acre? 

5. Suppose the plants use one-eighth of this. 
What is the weight of the water used by a square yard 
of vegetation ? A square rod ? An acre ? 

6. Suppose potatoes contain three-fourths of their 
weight of water. How many pounds of water in a 
bushel of potatoes? 

7. If 150 bushels per acre of potatoes is a good 
yield, how many pounds of water in the potatoes 
grown on an acre? 

8. By the aid of data furnished by the members 
of the class make and solve at least ten other similar 
problems. 



CHAPTER III 



PLANT FOODS 

Lime is known to every child. It is known, too, 
that Hme will dissolve readily in water, and thvis 
become available for plant food. Large quantities of 
lime are found in the soil. Of course, it comes from 
the lime rock. 

Soda, or saleratus, as it is sometimes called, is also 
easily dissolved in water. Soda is made from com- 
mon salt and the plants get it from the soil. 

Iron-nist gives the red or yellow color to rocks 
and soils. It dissolves easily in water, especially after 
a little acid is added. But what is an acid? The 
commonest kind of acid, without which no farmer's 
wife could well get along, is vinegar. Acids are usual- 
ly sour in taste, and their presence in the soil assists 
water in dissolving rock. A copper penny can be 
made bright, or an old brass ring to look like gold, 
by rubbing it with a little vinegar. This is because 
the acid dissolves off the tarnish and leaves the clean 



24 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

surface exposed. Some of the plant foods dissolve 
much more readily in water to which a little acid has 
been added. Soda is a good example. Put a tea- 
spoonful of it in a cup about one-fourth full of water 
without stirring. Add a little vinegar and notice what 
takes place. The soda disappears because the acid 
acts on it. Gas is given off very rapidly, causing it 
to bubble and ''foam." This gas is carbonic acid, 
one of the four acids named in the last chapter. These 
acids help the water to dissolve the plant foods in 
the soil and are themselves taken in as plant foods. 

Sand needs no discussion. It is the food that gives 
stiffness to the stalks of barley, oats and other grains. 
Small grains, grown on rich bottom land, usually 
''lodge" partly because they are unable to get suf- 
ficient sand from the soil. 

Ammonia is known by its odor. It is used for 
cleaning clothing and windows. If you go into the 
barn on a warm morning you will get a strong odor 
of ammonia from the horse manure, if the barn has 
been closed during the night. Ammonia is always 
given off to the air when animal matter decays. It 
contains the element, nitrogen, so essential to plant 
growth. 

Carbonic acid gas is a plant food and it is also 
found in the air. You will remember it as the gas 
that came off when you put vinegar on soda. This 



PLANT FOODS 25 

gas is always given off to the air when vegetable mat- 
ter burns or decays. You are throwing it off from 
your lungs with every breath that you breathe. So, 
too, are all animals. Here is a simple test for it tliat 
any child can easily make. Put a piece of fresh lime m 
some water, shake well and let it stand until it settles 
and the water is perfectly clear. Pour off this clear 
liquid into another bottle. This clear liqmd is lime 
water. Some of the lime has been dissolved. Taste 
it to satisfy yourself. Now, pour some of the lime 
water into a tumbler and blow bubbles through it 
with a straw. It gets milky because of the carbonic 
acid in your lungs. Now mix up some more "soda 
water" and add vinegar. Carefully tip the tumbler so 
that the gas can run into the lime water. It is heav- 
ier than air and will run over the edge of the tumbler 
like water. Shake the lime water. It is milky again. 
This shows that the gas given off by the soda water 
when vinegar is added is the same as the gas given 
off by your lungs. Make one more experiment : 

Place a little lime water in a saucer and set this on 
the floor in your sleeping room over night. In the 
morning it, too, will be found to be milky. This 
shows the presence of carbonic acid in the air. 

Magnesia is known to most of us. It is the white 
powder used to whiten the skin and prevent soreness 
from the wind. 



2G ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

Potash is found in wood ashes and gives to lye, 
made therefrom, its soapy feel. 

The water, soil and air are the sources of plant 
foods. The air contains two — ammonia and carbonic 
acid — the soil the other nine. All of these foods ex- 
cept carbonic acid dissolve in water and enter the 
plant by its roots. Carbonic acid is taken in directly 
from the air by the plant through the little holes in the 
leaves. 

Now, if these foods are not found in sufficient 
quantity in the soil, the plant grows slowly and 
finally dies. Again, the soil may contain plenty of 
plant food, but it may not be in a form readily soluble 
by the water, and the plant suffers from a lack of food, 
just as one may starve within ten feet of plenty of 
food that is securely locked up so that he can not get 
at it. One problem which the farmer is called upon 
to solve is, how to make the soil of his farm more 
easily soluble. 

Plants may be killed by too much food. Who has 
not seen spots of grass killed out where the cattle have 
been salted or have dropped manure? This is be- 
cause the plants have taken in too much solid food. 
Plants can live on so small an amount as one part of 
solid food dissolved in a million parts of water, and 
more than one part in a thousand kills them. One way 
to kill noxious weeds is to cover them with salt, lime, 



PLANT FOODS 27 

ashes, etc., so that they will get more than one part 
of this food in every thousand parts of water that 
they use. 

From what we have learned it is clear that, if the 
farmer raises grain on his farm to sell, and never re- 
turns manure to the soil, he will rob it of its plant food, 
and it will soon begin to show evidence of being 
''worn out." Plant foods are being continually used 
up by the growing plants, and removed with them, and 
none are returned to take their place. The heavier 
the crop the greater will be the loss. Tobacco and root 
crops being so much heavier, exhaust the soil faster 
than small grains. 

But worn-out soil does not mean soil in which all 
the different kinds of plant foods are used up. In 
fact, soil usually contains all plant foods in inexhaus- 
tible quantities with but three exceptions, namely: 
Potash, phosphoric acid and the nitrogen found in 
ammonia. To restore the fertility of the soil means 
only to restore these three substances. The general 
rules for fertilizing soils will be taken up later. 



28 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



Table III. 
Table showing proportions of fertilizing substances in 
farm crops: 

OUNCES PER BUSHEL. 

Phosphoric ■ 

Crop. Nitrogen. Acid. Potash. 

Wheat 20 oz. 8 oz. 5 oz. 

Rye 17 oz. 9 oz. 5 oz. 

Corn, shelled 14 oz. 5 oz. 3 oz. 

Barley 12 oz. 6 oz. 4 oz. 

Buckwheat 12 oz. 4 oz. 2 oz. 

Oats 10 oz. 3 oz. 2 oz. 

Potatoes 3 oz. 1 oz. 4 oz. 

Root crops, average 3 oz. 1 oz. 2 oz. 

POUNDS PER TON. 

Phosphoric 

Crop. Nitrogen. Acid. Potash. 

Timothy or red top hay 20 lbs. 9 lbs. 30 lbs. 

Clover hay 40 lbs. 10 lbs. 40 lbs. 

Tobacco (leaves) 60 lbs. 13 lbs. 80 lbs. 

Straw (average) 10 lbs. 4 lbs. 20 lbs. 

Sugar beets 3 lbs. 1-5 lbs. 4 lbs. 

Problems. 

I. How many pounds of each of the three im- 
portant fertilizers in a crop of wheat that yields 20 
bu. per acre? 25 bu. per acre? 



PLANT FOODS 29 

2. A corn crop of 50 bu. per acre ? 60 bu. ? 75 bu. ? 

3. An oat crop of 40 bu. per acre ? 50 bu. ? 60 bu. ? 

4. A barley crop of 40 bu.? 45 bu. ? 50 bu.? 

5. A potato crop of no bu. per acre? 120 bu. ? 
150 bu.? 

6. A clover hay crop of 3!/^ tons per acre? 4 
tons? 5 tons? 

7. A meadow hay crop of 2 tons per acre? 2I/2 
tons? 3 tons? 

8. A tobacco crop of 1,500 lbs. per acre? 1,800 
lbs.? 

9. Compare the results and notice which crop is 
hardest on the soil. 

10. Pupils should furnish data for similar prob- 
lems. Tell how many acres of corn, wheat, hay, etc., 
were raised on the farm at home, the number of bush- 
els or tons per acre, and find the amount of the three 
essential fertilizers taken off with the crop. 



CHAPTER IV 



SOIL 



A good deal has been said about soils, and it may 
interest you to discuss how soils are made. The soil 
in Wisconsin, and most of the northern states, contains 
much hard gravel mixed with fine soil. This "drift," 
as it is called, varies in depth from a few inches to 
hundreds of feet. Underneath this drift is solid rock. 
Any "well-driller" will tell you this. He can also tell 
you how far he has had to go down into the earth, be- 
fore striking rock, in the dififerent wells that he has 
drilled. He will also tell you that this rock does not 
resemble the stone or gravel above ito Where, then, 
did this drift come from? 

Many years ago, before man made his appearance 
on the earth, a great mass of ice and snow, called 
a glacier, moved down from the polar regions, scrap- 
ing up the loose earth, rocks, and stones as it passed 
slowly along, crushing and grinding them together, 
wearing off hill tops, filling up valleys and leaving, 



SOIL 



31 



as it passed, the gravelly soil in which the farmer now 
sows his seed. The reason why the "stones that may 
now be picked up are so hard is that only the hard 
ones could withstand the grinding. The softer ones 
were easily ground up and formed soil. In the wes- 
tern part of the state of Wisconsin, in eastern Iowa, 
and in northern Illinois is a tract known as the 
"driftless area," over which the glacier did not pass. 
Here the soil may be seen in the actual process of 
formation. The rock on top gradually "rots" and 




Drawing, showing how rock grad- 
ually breaks up and decays from the 
top downward. 



Drawing, showing glacial drift de- 
posited on top of the solid rock. 



breaks up. The water washes the lighter portions 
down and spreads them out at lower levels. The rain 
and snow work their way into the cracks of the rocks, 
and, freezing there, break them up into smaller pieces. 
Even the wind breaks off small pieces and carries 
them away. Great drifts of sand, like snow, may 
sometimes be seen piled up by the action of the wind. 



32 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

Plants die and decay, and thus help to build up the 
soil. Roots of trees sometimes work their way into 
crevices of the rock and, growing there, split off great 
pieces. Roots also secrete a kind of acid that helps 
to dissolve the rock. The gases in the ajr help in 
breaking up the rock, thus forming soil. Animals, 
too, like the gopher and woodchuck, burrow into the 
earth and help to tear up and break down the rock. 
When they die their bodies decay and become a part 
of the soil. Earthworms, or "angle worms," as they 
are called, feed on the soil and break up the particles 
into still finer ones. 

These are the agencies, then, that assist each other 
in the formation of soil : Glaciers, wind, water, frost, 
plants, animals, and gases in the air. 

What kinds of soils are formed by all these agen- 
cies? It must be remembered that all soil originally 
came from the rock and the kind of soil must there- 
fore depend on the kind of rock from which it was 
made. That is, we have sandy soil in sandstone re- 
gions, and in limestone regions clay is usually found. 
The black soil, found on low, flat land, is made, prin- 
cipally, from decayed leaves and plants. This soil is 
called humus. Humus mixed with clay and sand is 
called loam. If there is more sand than clay in the 
mixture it is called sandy loam and if there is more 
clay than sand in the mixture it is called clayey loam. 



SOIL 33 

Of course, these soils are found mixed in every pos- 
sible proportion. This fact leads to a great variety of 
soils and it is the farmer's business to learn the nature 
of the soil on his farm and how best to handle it. 
Loamy soils are the best farm lands, because of the 
ease with which they may be cultivated. They are 
warm soils and hold moisture well. A sticky clay soil 
may be improved in texture, and warmed up at the 
same time, by a plentiful addition of barn yard manure, 
containing much straw. This adds humus and makes 
the clay into a clayey loam. The same treatment is 
also good for sand, as it increases the capacity of sand 
for holding moisture and makes a sandy loam. If it 
were possible, and less expensive, many barren sandy 
places might be made fertile by adding to them plenti- 
ful quantities of swamp muck. This treatment would 
convert them into a loam of good quality. Plowing 
under full grown crops of rye or clover has much the 
same effect. Either method adds humus to the soil 
and tends to make it more loamy. Rye grows well on 
sandy soil, and clover is a good crop to raise on clay 
for plowing under. 

A good loam contains all the foods needed by 
growing plants. As has been said before, only three 
of these foods, with the possible addition of lime, ever 
become exhausted. You will remember that these 
three are nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid. It 



34 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

is the purpose of the next chapter to tell how you 
may judge from the character of the soil, and the 
growing crop, which one of these plant foods is most 
needed. 



Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
Bureau of Soils. 

Circular No. 4.— Soils of Salt Lake Valley, Utah. 
Circular No. 8. — Reclamation of Salt Marsh Lands. 
Circular No. 13. — The Work of the Bureau of Soils. 

Table IV. 

Table showing fertilizing substances in average soils: 
Pounds Per Ton. 

Phosphoric 

Soil. • Nitrogen. Acid. Potash. 

Loam 7 lbs. 3 lbs. 8 lbs. 

Clay 3 lbs. 3 lbs. 15 lbs. 

Drift 3 lbs. ^ lb. 6 lbs. 

Sand 1 lb. 2 lbs. 5 lbs. 

(Adapted from Stockbridge.) 



Problems. 

I. Suppose soil is cultivated to the depth of 4 in. 
How many cu. ft. of cultivated soil per sq. ft. of area? 
Per sq. yd.? Per sq. rod? Per acre? 



SOIL 35 

2. If a cu. ft. of soil weighs 75 lbs., how many 
lbs. of cultivated soil per sq. yard ? Per sq. rod ? Per 
acre? 

3. Find the number of pounds of nitrogen, potash 
and phosphoric acid in the cultivated soil per acre for 
each of the four kinds of soil. 

4. If the soil is cultivated to the depth of eight 
inches how many pounds of each of the three fertiliz- 
ing substances per acre in each of the soils given in 
the table ? 

5. How many pounds of nitrogen, potash and 
phosphoric acid are used, annually, per acre, by a crop 
of 20 bu. of wheat? In how many years will one-half 
of all the nitrogen in clay be used up by this crop feed- 
ing to the depth of eight inches ? 

6. How will this affect future crops? 

7. Work the same problem for the other soils. 

8. Use a 50 bushel corn crop per acre and work 
problem 7. Also a 60 bu. oat crop. A 120 bu. potato 
crop. 

9. Pupils furnish data for similar problems. 



CHAPTER V 



THE SOIL AND THE CROP 



As was stated in the last chapter, the crop will 
usually tell the farmer by its appearance the kind of 
food it most needs. However, the only way by which 
he can find this out for a certainty, is by making 
careful experiments with the three essential fertiliz- 
ers. Good, fertile, well-drained soil, properly cul- 
tivated, usually produces healthy, dark green plants 
with strong, good-sized stalks and numerous well- 
filled seeds. 

Now, the growth of the stalk and foliage of the 
plant is largely due to the nitrogen in the soil, pro- 
vided, of course, that the drainage is good and other 
conditions of heat, light, air and moisture are favora- 
ble. If the plant has a yellow and sickly appearance, 
and, with proper cultivation, refuses to grow, it is 
likely starving for want of nitrogen. What should 
the farmer do? 

Barn yard manure is an almost perfect fertilizer; 



THE SOIL AND THE CROP 37 

that is, it has the right amounts of nitrogen, phos- 
phoric acid and potash in it in a form readily obtain- 
able by the plant. A plentiful application of barnyard 
manure will improve the next crop, and is the best 
remedy for yellow and sickly plants. 

In the next place, clover, alfalfa, peas and like 
plants which bear their seeds in pods may grow well 
on this kind of soil, because they have the power of 
using the nitrogen of the air in a way that will be 
explained later. These plants store up the nitrogen 
that they take from the air, and if they are plowed 
under when full grown they add this store of nitrogen 
to the soil, besides forming an excellent soil mulch. 
Clover stands next to barn yard manure for the 
restoration of nitrogen and is sometimes easier of 
application. 

Another method consists of applying commercial 
fertilizers, containing nitrogen, directly to the soil. 
These may be bought in the market, but as yet they 
are little used by the farmers, because manure and 
clover are ordinarily cheaper, more convenient, and 
easier to apply. Guano, saltpeter, fish and animal 
refuse from slaughter houses are the principal com- 
mercial fertilizers that contain large amounts of this 
much-needed plant food. 

A shortage of phosphoric acid in the soil is usually 
shown by small, undeveloped and shrunken seeds. The 



38 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

grain does not "fill well," as the farmer says. The 
ground has been carefully prepared, tilled and drained. 
What is he to do? Nothing is simpler. Apply phos- 
phoric acid fertilizers to the soil. Here again, barn- 
yard manure, because it is a perfect fertilizer, is the 
best and easiest one to be had. Ground bones, burned 
bones, marls and rock phosphates are the fertilizers of 
commerce, and are being more and more extensively 
used. 




THE EFFECT OF FERTILIZERS. 
Fertilized with 560 lbs. Fertilized with 720 lbs. 

of mixed Nitrate, Potash No fertilizers. 2,110 of mixed Nitrate, Potash 
and Phosphate. 4,310 lbs. lbs. of hay per acre. and Phosphate. 6,610 lbs. 

of hay per acre. of hay per acre. 

(Cornell University Bulletin.) 

Potash is especially essential to the production of 
fruits, potatoes and root crops. In most cases, when 
other conditions are perfect, under-sized, shriveled 



THE SOIL AND THE CROP 30 

and imperfect fruits and roots are due to a lack of 
potash. Here again barnyard manure is the usual 
remedy. Wood ashes are especially valuable because 
of the potash which they contain. They should never 
be wasted, but saved and put on the land. Potash 
salts may be bought on the market, but, like other 
commercial fertilizers, they have not yet come into 
general use. 

To sum up what has already been said : Barn- 
yard manure is called a perfect fertilizer because it 
contains all the elements that become exhausted from 
the soil, namely : nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. 
It is the easiest fertilizer to get and for that reason is 
always the best to use. Clover, plowed under, will re- 
store nitrogen to the soil because it has power to take 
nitrogen from the air, a power which few other plants 
have. Wood ashes are rich in potash and should 
never be wasted, but sown on the soil. Commercial 
fertilizers, containing what the soil especially needs, 
may be bought and applied. When they are wisely 
selected, the profit from their use is large. 

There is still another use to which commercial fer- 
tilizers, like lime and land plaster, are put. They are 
used not so much because they are themselves plant 
foods, but because of the chemical effect which they 
have upon the soil. Your attention has already been 
called to the fact that plants sometimes starve with an 



40 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

abundance of food near at hand, but in a form in 
which they can not use it for food — locked up, as it 
were, Hke bread and butter in a pantry. If a boy were 
starving because his food was ''locked up" he would 
want the key. No boy will die of starvation with a 
well-filled cupboard, unlocked, in the house. Neither 
will plants starve when suitable food is obtainable. 
Now, lime and land plaster are the keys that unlock 
other plant foods in the soil and change them into a 
form in which the plants can use them. It is, prin- 
cipally, for this reason that they are used. 

The subject of fertilizers and fertilization is a large 
and very important one to the farmer. It needs 
much thought and careful study, and is only touched 
upon here in the briefest possible manner. The prob- 
lems which follow will help to emphasize the points 
made in this chapter. 




THE BOY'S CHORES. 



THE SOIL AND THE CROP 41 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
Extracts. 

No. 169. — Soil Investigations in the United States. 
Table V. 

Showing average amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid 
and potash in fertilizers: 

POUNDS PER TON. 

Phosphoric 

Substance. Nitrogen. Acid. Potash. 

Clover hay 40 11 36 

Straw 10 2 10 

Barnyard manure 10 6 9 

Wood ashes 60 160 

Burned bones 500 

Ground bones 400 



Problems. 

1. Suppose a load of barnyard manure weighs a 
ton. How many pounds of nitrogen in it? Of phos- 
phoric acid ? Of potash ? 

2. How much of each of the above in 15 loads? 
20 loads? 50 loads? 

3. How many loads of manure were hauled onto 
your land last year? How much of each fertilizing 
substance was supplied? 



42 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

4. If you put 15 loads on an acre how much of 
each fertiHzing substance per acre? 

5. Suppose you harvested 50 bu. of corn per acre. 
How much of each fertiHzing substance did you take 
off with the crop? 

6. Was your soil richer or poorer after the corn 
was harvested? Did you take off more than you put 
on? How much of each kind? 

7. How much of each of these fertilizing sub- 
stances is taken off with a 25 bu. crop per acre of 
wheat? A 40 bu. crop of barley? 

9. How many loads of manure per acre are neces- 
sary to restore the fertility lost when a 25 bu. per 
acre wheat crop is harvested ? 

10. Pupils will furnish data for similar problems. 



CHAPTER VI 



WEARING OUT THE SOIL 



From what we learned in the last chapter, it is 
easily seen that the farmer who raises grain and to- 
bacco to sell, and who returns nothing to the land in 
the form of fertilizers, is literally "selling his farm." 
He sells soil in small quantities, it is true, but he sells 
it nevertheless. There can be but one result from this 
kind of farming. No matter how rich the soil, sooner 
or later it will wear out. The poorer the land the 
sooner will its fertility become exhausted. 

In the early history of Wisconsin much wheat was 
grown, the land in niany cases yielding as high as 
forty bushels per acre. But the yield rapidly de- 
creased until no more than ten or fifteen bushels could 
be grown. The farmers gave up selling wheat, and 
the wheat belt moved on to the west. Why was this? 
Simply because wheat, a heavy feeder as shown by 
the tables, wore out the soil. No fertilizers were 
returned to' take the place of the soil matter taken off 



44 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



with the wheat, and in a few years the wheat crop 
starved out. What is true of wheat is equally true of 
every other crop, in the proportion in which it uses up 
in its growth nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. 

Progressive farmers have learned that grain farm- 
ing does not pay, and they have gone into dairying and 




Tubercles on the roots of soja beans in which nitrogen 
from the air is stored up. 

have prospered. Why is dairy farming so much bet- 
ter? Because the grain and hay raised on the farm 
are fed there and returned again to the soil in the 
form of barnyard manure. Very little soil matter is 
sold from the farm. The proportion of nitrogen, 



WEARING OUT THE SOIL 45 

phosphoric acid and potash in butter, cheese, beef and 
pork is very small for the amount of feed consumed, 
as the table following this chapter will show. It will 
take a long time to lessen to any great extent the 
amount of these substances in the soil by dairy farm- 
ing. 

Again, the dairy farmer raises much clover, and 
clover, as you have already seen, really enriches the 
soil by adding to it nitrogen from the air. 

The wise farmer wastes nothing. If he raises 
peas and corn, for the canning factory, he hauls the 
vines and stalks back to his farm. If he grows beets 
for the sugar factory, he has the pulp returned to his 
land. He sells neither hay nor grain, but feeds it on 
his farm. He saves all manure and carefully returns 
it to the soil. 



Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

Farmers' Bulletins. 

No. 44. — Commercial Fertilizers: Composition and Use, 
No. 77. — The Liming of Soils. 
No. 192. — Barnyard Manure. 



40 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

Table VI. 

Table showing fertilizing substances in dairy prod- 
ucts: 

OUNCES PER 100 POUNDS. 

Phosphoric 
Nitrogen. Acid. Potash. 

Cheese 63 oz. 10 oz. 2 oz. 

Milk 8 oz. 3 oz. 3 oz. 

Butter 2 oz. 3-5 oz. ^ oz. 

Table VII. 

Table showing fertilizing substances in farm animals: 

OUNCES PER 100 POUNDS. 

Phosphoric 
Nitrogen. Acid. Potash. 

Cattle 40 oz. 29 oz. 3 oz. 

Sheep 35 oz. 19 oz. 3 oz. 

Hogs 32 oz. 130 oz. 23/^ oz. 

Problems. 

1. How much nitrogen is sold from the farm with 
every ton of butter? How much phosphoric acid? 
How much potash ? 

2. How many pounds of these three substances 
are sold with every ton of cheese? 

3. How many pounds of each are sold with 100 
lbs. of butter? With 100 lbs. of cheese? Which is 
harder on the soil? 

4. How much of each of these fertilizing sub- 
stances in a 300 lb. pig? 



WEARING OUT THE SOIL 47 

5. How much of each of these fertiHzing sub- 
stances in a 1,200 lb. steer? 

6. A farmer sells 20 hogs, each weighing 225 lbs. 
How many pounds of each kind of fertilizing sub- 
stance does he sell? 

7. Suppose he sells 6 head of cattle weighing 1,050 
lbs. each. How much of each of these three sub- 
stances does he sell? 

8. How much butter did you (each family repre- 
sented in the class) sell last year? How much of each 
of these three fertilizing substances did you sell with 
the butter? Did it wear out the farm much? About 
how many loads of manure will it take to replace 
them? (Suppose a load of manure weighs a ton). 

9. How many hogs did you sell last year? About 
how much did they weigh? How much phosphoric 
acid went with them? How much nitrogen? How 
much potash? 

10. Did you sell any wheat? Any other grain? 
If so, how much? How much of your farm went 
with it? 

11. Pupils will furnish data for other similar prob- 
lems. 



CHAPTER VII 



LEGUMES 



From a study of the table on fertilizing substances 
in different soils, and a comparison of this table with 
the one on fertilizing substances in farm crops, it will 
be seen that nitrogen is the element which, from ordi- 
nary soils and under ordinary conditions of farming, is 
likely to be the soonest exhausted. Ordinarily, then, 
the farmer's attention should be turned to methods of 
restoring nitrogen. If a sufficient quantity of manure 
were produced on the farm, of course the best method 
of fertilizing would be to apply barnyard manure to 
the soil, as it not only contains nitrogen, but also phos- 
phoric acid and potash, the other needed elements. 
But it is not always possible to do this. There is a 
class of plants, however, called legumes, that have the 
power to add nitrogen to the soil. Peas, beans, clover, 
alfalfa, cowpeas, and soja beans, belong to this class. 
It is the purpose of this chapter to explain the man- 
ner in which these plants add nitrogen to the soil. 



LEGUMES 49 

The air that we breathe is composed largely of two 
gases — oxygen and nitrogen. Both are colorless, 
odorless, and invisible. About one-fifth of the air is 
oxygen and the other four-fifths nitrogen. Oxygen 
is a very active element, combining readily with other 
substances. It is the oxygen that causes iron to rust, 
coal to burn, or wood to decay. If the air were pure 
oxygen, any fire once started could never be put out, 
and even our bodies would take fire and burn. 

On the other hand, nitrogen is a very inactive ele- 
ment, and does not combine readily with other sub- 
stances. Its presence in the air dilutes the oxygen and 
makes it less active. It is well known that tea can be 
made so strong that no person can drink it. It may 
be readily diluted and its strength greatly lessened, 
however, by the addition of water. It is much the 
same way with oxygen. It is so active that it must 
be mixed with nitrogen before it can be used by man 
and animals. It is mixed in the air, there being, as 
has been said, about four times as much nitrogen as 
oxygen in it. Farm crops can not use this "free" 
nitrogen in the air. 

There are, however, little plant-like germs, called 
bacteria, which live in the soil that can and do feed 
upon this free nitrogen in the air. These germs are 
a kind of parasite and are usually found associated 
with the legumes, i. e., with peas, beans, clover and 



50 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 




CLOVER AND ALFALFA ROOTS SHOWING TUBERCLES. 



LEGUMES 51 

the like. They fasten themselves to the roots of these 
plants and build their homes there. Their little 
"nests" look like tiny potatoes and are called tubercles. 
They are about as large as pinheads and are to be 
found adhering to the roots of clover, beans, and peas. 
Pull up a bunch of thrifty clover, or any other legume, 
and examine its roots for these tubercles. A peculiar 
thing about these germs is that they do not seem to 
thrive without the legumes and the legumes do not 
thrive without the germs. Sometimes clover refuses 
to grow on certain soils. The reason is that there are 
no germs in the soil. Such soils should be "inocu- 
lated," i. e., the germs should be planted there and 
then the clover will grow. These germs are sent out 
by the United States Department of Agriculture in 
little cakes, somewhat resembling yeast cakes, which 
may be dissolved in water and sprayed on the land. 
In order to restore nitrogen to worn-out soil it is 
only necessary to seed with clover or some other 
legume. The germs found in the tubercles on the 
roots of the legume will feed upon the nitrogen of the 
air and store it up in the legume. If this crop is 
plowed under, nitrogen is added to the soil, which is 
consequently enriched and at the same time improved 
in texture, especially if it be a clayey soil. This is the 
secret of clover growing on the farm. It is the com- 
mon practice among farmers to cut the first crop of 



52 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



clover for hay and plow under the second crop. Thus 
the clover is made to serve a double purpose — first 
furnishing food for stock, and next a supply of 
nitrogen for the soil. 




ALPALFA FIELD. ONE-HALF OF WHICH HAD BEEN 
INOCULATED. 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



Farmers' Bulletins. 



No. 89. — Cowpeas. 

No. 194.— Alfalfa Seed. 

No. 214. — Beneficial Bacteria for Leguminous Crops. 

No. 215.— Alfalfa Growing. 



LEGUMES 53 



Problems. 



1. How does clover compare with other hay in 
the amount of nitrogen it contains ? Phosphoric acid ? 
Potash? 

2. If two tons of hay per acre is an average yield, 
how much of each fertilizer is removed yearly from 8 
acres of ground? 

3. Which kind of hay makes the richest manure? 
Why? 

4. How much more of nitrogen in a crop of 25 
acres of clover hay, yielding 3 tons per acre than in 
the same number of acres of mixed hay yielding 2 
tons per acre? Where does this extra nitrogen come 
from? 

5. How many tons of each kind of hay did you 
raise on the farm last year? 

6. How many tons of hay did you sell last year? 
How many pounds of each of the three important 
kinds of "soil fertility" did you sell? How many 
pounds altogether? 

7. Pupils furnish data for similar problems. 



CHAPTER VIII 



TILLING THE SOIL 



Tillage stands next in importance to fertilization, 
and, with many soils, it is even more important. Til- 
lage is here meant to include both the preparation of 
the soil before planting, and, with crops that admit of 
it, the cultivation of the crop after it is planted. 

As we have learned, the plant is fed by its roots 
that penetrate the soil in every direction. These feed- 
ing roots are very small and work their way between 
the soil particles, gathering up the dissolved food and 
passing it into the plant. If the soil is coarse and 
lumpy these little rootlets cannot get at the food locked 
up in the lumps, but can only feed upon their surface. 
Proper preparation of the soil will break up these 
lumps, pulverize them, and allow the roots of the 
plants to get at the food matter which they contain. 
Again, water cannot easily dissolve plant foods in 
lumpy ground. Stirring the soil will hasten the solu- 
tion of this food matter. These facts may be easily 
shown by experiment. 



TILLING THE SOIL 55 

Throw a handful of line salt into a tumbler of 
water. Into another tumbler put a lump of salt or a 
piece of rock salt about the same size. Which dis- 
solves the sooner? Stir both and note the effect of 
stirring. Does stirring hasten solution? Now put 
the same amount of fine salt in each of two glasses. 
Stir one, but do not disturb the other. 

You have noticed, in the above experiments, that 
lumpy salt dissolves much more slowly than fine salt, 
and that stirring always hastens solution. It is just 
so with plant foods contained in the soil. Plant foods 
contained in lumpy soils dissolve very slowly, and culti- 
vation has the same effect upon them that stirring has 
upon the salt in the water. It causes them to dis- 
solve. The plant cannot use these foods until they are 
dissolved, so that excellent preparation of the soil be- 
fore planting, and constant cultivation of it after plant- 
ing, both tend to increase the supply of plant food as 
well as to hasten the growth of plants. 

The depth to which soils should be cultivated de- 
pends in a large degree upon the depth to which the 
plant roots will penetrate. The grains are shallow 
rooted and do not need so deep cultivation as do corn 
and root crops. The farmer is not likely to plow too 
deep for any crop, however. Deep plowing brings to 
the surface plant foods that have never been reached 
by shallow cultivation, and it pulverizes the soil so 



56 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



that the roots can penetrate it to a greater depth, and 
have more soil to feed upon. 

For root crops the ground must be plowed deep and 
be very carefully pulverized. There are two reasons for 




THE RESULT OF CAREFUL CULTIVATION. 
This tomato plant attained the height of eleven feet, 
six inches and bore one hundred one perfectly formed to- 
matoes. 

this. In the first place, poorly- pulverized soil spoils 
the shape of roots like beets and parsnips. They 



TILLING THE SOIL 57 

cannot grow equally in all directions, and become 
crooked, split, and misshapen because of the hindrance 
of lumps to their growth. In the second place, if they 
cannot penetrate the soil easily, when they strike the 
hard soil below, they will be raised out of the ground 
as they increase in length. All that has been said 
about cultivation of plants applies with special force 
to root crops. 

Another important reason for cultivation is to be 
found in the fact that cultivated soils do not dry out 
so rapidly during a drought. This seems strange at 
first, but it is nevertheless true, and the reason is easily 
seen. There are two kinds of water in the ground — ■ 
capillary water and *'free," underground, water. Un- 
derground water flows along beneath the surface and 
sometimes comes out again in the form of springs. 
It is this water that supplies our wells. But it is the 
capillary water and not the *'free" water that is used 
by the plants. A simple illustration will make clear 
what capillary water is. You have, no doubt, observed 
how oil rises in the lamp wick. The oil in the wick 
is moving upward and may be called "capillary" oil, 
while that in the lamp is *'free." The oil in the wick 
corresponds to the capillary water in the soil, while 
that in the lamp corresponds to the underground 
water. Another illustration : At the breakfast table 
take a spoonful of sugar and just touch the tip of the 



58 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

spoon to the surface of the cofifee in your cup and 
notice how the coffee creeps up into the sugar. It is 
in exactly the same way that the underground water 
creeps upward in the soil and becomes capillary water. 
Still another illustration : Fill a pan half full of 
water ; set it on a table and throw a rag over the edge 
so that one end will dip into the water and the other 
end will lie on the table. In a little while the water 
will be running from the pan out upon the table. In 
other words, it runs "up-hill," through the cloth, over 
the edge of the pan, and ''down-hill" through the 
cloth to the table. The water that runs updiill is 
capillary water, while that in the pan is free water. 
The capillary water is being continually supplied from 
the free water in the pan below. Let us remember that 
it is the capillary water which the plant uses and which 
is also evaporating from the soil. 

We know that if we cover up a kettle it keeps the 
water from evaporating, "boiling away," as we say. 
In the same way a blanket, spread over the soil, will 
prevent the evaporation of this capillary water. The 
simplest way to get this blanket spread over the 
soil is to cultivate it. The layer of cultivated soil 
dries out very rapidly, but it prevents the air from 
getting at the moist soil underneath and thus keeps it 
from drying out. It acts as a sort of dry blanket to 
prevent the evaporation of moisture. 



TILLING THE SOIL 



59 



To conclude : There are three chief reasons for 
tilHng the soil, (i) To pulverize it, making it easy 
for the plant roots to penetrate it in every direction 
and to get at the store of food it contains. (2) To stir 
it and thus hasten the solution of plant food as well as 
to destroy weeds that rob the plants of their food. 




A WELL CULTIVATED CORN FIELD. 

(3) To form a soil mulch, a sort of "dry blanket," 
which will prevent rapid evaporation of the capillary 
water from the soil. 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

No. 306. — Some Soil Problems for Practical Farmers. 



60 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



Problems. 

1. How many square feet in one square yard? 
In one acre? 

2. If soil is cultivated to the depth of 4 in., how 
many cubic feet of cultivated soil per acre? How 
many, if cultivated to the depth of 6 in.? If culti- 
vated to the depth of 8 in. ? 

3. How much more plant food is made available 
with cultivation to the depth of 8 in. than with a 4 in. 
deep cultivation? 

4. How many times as much available plant food 
in soil cultivated to the depth of 6 in. as in soil culti- 
vated only 4 in. deep? 

5. If a man and team can plow lYo acres 6 in. 
deep or 2 acres 4 in. deep in a day, how much more 
does it cost per acre to plow land 6 in. deep than to 
plow it only 4 in. deep? Labor worth $2.40 per day. 

6. If a man and team can till 3 acres thoroughly 
in a day, or 5 acres in a careless manner, how much 
more per acre does a good job cost, labor being worth 
$2.40 per day? 

7. How much more per acre does it cost to both 
plow and till well? How many additional bushels of 
oats worh $0.36 per bu. will it take to pay for the addi- 
tional labor? 



TILLING THE SOIL 61 

8. How much will be the gain if but 40 bu. of oats 
can be raised with shallow plowing and careless seed- 
ing, and 57 bu. with the extra work ? How much will 
these oats be worth at 24 cents per bu. ? At $0.30 
per bu. ? At the present price of oats? 

9. A certain piece of land yields 35 bu. of corn 
per acre. By careful cultivation the farmer is able to 
increase this yield to 60 bu. With corn worth $0.40 
per bu. how many additional days' labor at $1 per day 
will the extra yield pay for? 

10. If he spends but 20 days' extra time on his 
i2-acre field of corn to produce the increase in crop 
shown in problem 9, how much does he get per day for 
his extra time? 

11. Suppose a farmer is able to double the average 
yield of 160 bu. of potatoes from an acre of land by 
putting 15 days' extra time on it. What wages does 
he get with potatoes at $0.25 per bu. ? 

12. From answers to the following questions make 
other problems similar to the above. What does labor 
cost per day? How many acres can a man plow per 
day? How many acres can he seed in a day? How 
many acres of corn can he cultivate ? Will extra labor 
increase the yield of corn? etc., etc. 



CHAPTER IX 



DRAINING THE SOIL 



As was stated in the last chapter, the plant makes 
use of the capillary water in the soil and this capillary 
water is being continually supplied from the free water 
in the ground below. There is a level to this under- 
ground water just the same as there is a level to the 
water in a pond. On low, flat land this level is very 
near the surface. It is at or above the surface on 
swampy ground, and many feet below the surface in 
high places. High ground needs little attention so 
far as drainage is concerned, as the water which falls 
upon it either soaks in or runs rapidly ofif as surface 
water. 

Low ground, however, does need attention. Plants 
cannot grow without air, and much water in the soil 
keeps out the air. The level of the underground water 
must, therefore, be below the depth to which the roots 
of the crop ordinarily penetrate the soil. In other 
words, a crop will not do well on a field where the free 



DRAINING THE SOIL 63 

water level is too near the surface. You have all seen 
crops ''drowned out," as the farmer says. If you dig 
a post hole in such soil it will soon fill with water to 
within a foot or so from the top. The level of the 
water in this hole will be the free water level, and if 
it comes very near the surface no crop can be ex- 
pected to do well there. 

Again, wet soils are cold soils. It takes so much 
heat to dry up the water in them, and so much to 
warm the water that remains, that there is little left to 
warm up the soil. Often these soils are sour soils, 
and can not become sweet until the water is drained 
off and the heat and air let in. Sometimes it is even 
necessary to sow lime on these soils, in order to 
sweeten them, after the water has been drained off. 

What is the farmer to do with low, wet ground? 
Evidently there is but one thing to do — drain off the 
water. There are two methods of draining this water 
off, the open ditch and the tile drain. To begin with 
the land may be so low and flat that no kind of drain- 
age is possible. This, of course, may be determined 
by noting the level of the water in the nearest stream 
If it is within a foot or two of the surface of the 
land and overflows with every heavy rain, easy drain- 
age is impossible. But if the surface of the soil is a 
few feet above the level of the stream, the land can be 
easily drained. It is conceded that the tile system of 



64 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



drainage is better than the open ditch, though it re- 
quires more labor and expense. The tiles should be 
placed about three feet below the surface, so that the 
ground water level will be lowered to this point and 
the ground cultivated without interfering with the tiles. 
The size of the tiles to bo used, and the distance apart 




A PIECE OF MARSHY BAND BEFORE IT WAS DRAINED. 

which they should be placed, depends upon the slope 
and the character of the soil. An experienced drainage 
engineer should have charge of the work. 



DRAINING THE SOIL 



65 



Open ditches may prove quite as effectual in drain- 
ing the land, if they be deep enough, and not too far 
apart. Of course, they must be kept cleaned out. The 
greatest objection to open ditches is that they cut up 
the land and thus interfere with cultivation. They can 




THE SAME FIELD AFTER BEING TILE DRAINED. 

best be used in draining out sloughs and narrow, 
swampy places. Many acres of low land, now unculti- 
vated, might be made very productive if properly 
drained. 



66 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

Farmers' Bulletins. 

No. 40. — Farm Drainage. 

No. 187. — Drainage of Farm Lands. 

Table VIII. 

Table showing average cost of drainage tile in large 
quantities: 

3 in. tile cost about 3c each. 

4 in. tile cost about 4c each. 

5 in. tile cost about 5c each. 

6 in. tile cost about 6c each. 
All sizes are 12 inches in length. 

Problems. 

1. A farmer owns a plat of low ground 8o rods 
long and 50 rods wide ; how many acres in this plat ? 

2. A creek runs lengthwise through this land. The 
level of the water in the creek is 4 feet below the level 
of the land. Can it be drained ? 

3. Will the creek answer as a channel to carry off 
the water from the tiles? 

4. Suppose he puts the tiles crosswise of the field, 
4 rods apart, so that they open into the creek. How 
many rods of tiling will it take? How many feet? 
How many 4 in. tiles? 

5. What will be the cost of these tiles according to 
the above table? 

6. What will it cost to dig the ditches and lay the 
tiles at 20 cents per rod ? 



DRAINING THE SOIL 67 

7. What will be the entire cost if 4 in. tile are 
used ? 3 in. ? 6 in. ? 

8. What will be the cost per acre for each kind of 
tile? 

9. Suppose the open ditches like those in which 
the tiles are laid will answer. How much more will 
the tile system cost than the open ditches? 

10. If the farmer is able to grow only 1I4 tons of 
marsh hay worth $4 per ton on this land before drain- 
ing and can grow 60 bu. of corn worth $0.35 per bu. 
after draining, what is the increase in the value of the 
crop due to drainage? 

11. In how many years will this increase alone pay 
for the open ditch? For the 4 in. tile system? For 
the 6 in. tile system? 

12. Suppose the open ditch costs 5 cents per rod 
annually for repairs. In how many years will the 
open ditch cost as much as the tile drain ? 

13. If the above is a true example of the cost and 
value of drainage, does it pay ? 

14. What would it cost to dig an open ditch on 
each side of a slough 10 rods wide and 100 rods long 
at $0.25 per rod? 

15. Is there a place on your farm that needs drain- 
ing? Measure it. Draw a plan for ditches and esti- 
mate the cost of both systems. 



CHAPTER X 



THE CROP 



Every farmer desires to be prosperous. He tries to 
raise those crops which will give him the largest re- 
turns in money ; but often, in his anxiety to do this, he 
takes too little heed for the future. He reasons thus : 
"If tobacco is a high price and my soil will raise good 
tobacco, then tobacco is the crop for me to raise." So, 
year after year, he plants tobacco, until he finds that 
his soil will no longer raise a good crop of tobacco or 
anything else. Plainly, he has made a great mistake. 
What is the matter? 

The explanation is not hard to find. Tobacco is very 
hard on the soil, as you will readily see by consulting 
the table showing the amount of fertilizing substances 
in farm crops. Besides, tobacco requires the same kind 
of food, year after year, and unless the farmer has 
made a careful study of this crop, and of the fertilizers 
needed for its proper growth, his soil soon becomes 
exhausted of some of its fertilizing^ substances. The 



THE CROP 



69 



same is true of wheat, or corn, or any other crop, 
grown year after year on the same piece of ground. 
So, the farmer needs to consider not only the imme- 
diate returns, that is, the amount of money he will get 




HARVEST TIME. 

from his crop this year, but the effect that the crop 
will have upon the soil. 



70 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

Good farmers have dovisod a plan, known as "crop 
rotation," whereby they are able to secure the greatest 
possible returns from the farm with the least possible 
loss to the soil. This plan consists in growing one 
kind of crop on a certain piece of ground this year, 
another kind of crop requiring different food ma- 
terials next year, still another the year following, and 
so on. 

Now, what should form the basis of a good crop 
rotation ? Let us see. Suppose tobacco is to be grown 
this year. It is a heavy feeder and therefore hard on 
the soil. A large amount of soil matter will be re- 
moved with the crop. This should be restored. But 
how? With barnyard manure. Instead of planting 
tobacco next year, on this piece of land, better try 
some light feeder. If the soil is not too rich, oats will 
be a good crop to follow the tobacco. Clover can be 
sown with the oats and add more nitrogen to the soil. 
A crop of clover hay can be taken off the third year 
and the second crop plowed under. The soil is now 
in good shape again, and wheat or corn can be grown. 
Corn will afford an excellent opportunity for a thor- 
ough cultivation of the soil. A crop of peas may fol- 
low the corn. As you will remember, peas belong to 
the legume family and restore nitrogen to the soil in 
the same way that clover does. If the peas are sold to 
the canning factory, the vines should be brought back 



THE CROP 



71 



onto the land and plowed under to enrich the soil. 
It is now in good shape for a second crop of tobacco. 
Now let us see what has been done : A five year's 
rotation has been planned, consisting of tobacco, oats, 
clover, corn and peas, returning to tobacco again the 
sixth year. During that five years it has been neces- 
sary to manure this piece of land but once. During 
two years legumes have been grown and plowed under 




VARIOUS ROOT SYSTEMS. 
T — Tobacco, O — Oats, CI — Clover, B — Beets, W — V^heat, 
C— Corn, A — Alfalfa. 

to enrich the soil. This manure and these legumes 
have doubtless kept up the fertility of the soil. The 
farmer has had an opportunity for four years to 
manure other pieces of land. At the same time he has 
been following some plan of rotation on the rest of his 
farm. Each year he has grown tobacco, he has raised 
corn and sold his hogs, he has made hay for his cattle, 



72 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

and he has sold peas to the canning factory. He has 
been taking in money all the time, but he has not 
greatly exhausted his soil. 

There is still another feature of crop rotation worthy 
of study here. It is the different depths to which the 
roots of various crops penetrate. In the first place, 
tobacco is a long-rooted crop, and feeds deep down in 
the soil. Oats, which follow, are short rooted, and 
feed near the surface. Then comes clover, whose roots 
penetrate several feet, bringing food matter to the sur- 
face from deep down in the soil. When this crop is 
plowed under it furnishes a food supply for the corn 
which follows it. Now, if oats had been grown on this 
soil year after year, their short roots would soon have 
exhausted the food supply near the surface. This diffi- 
culty has been avoided by the rotation of crops. 
Again, crop rotation affords an opportunity for culti- 
vation which destroys weeds and increases the power 
of the soil to produce the desired crop. 

The rotation given in this chapter is only a ''sample" 
rotation, not an "ideal" one, and is introduced here 
only for the purpose of illustration. The farmer 
should devise rotations of his own, suited to the special 
needs of his farm and to the market for his products. 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

No. 289. — Practices in Crop Rotation. 

No. 320. — Relation of Sugar Beets to General Farming. 



THE CROP 73 



Problems. 



1. If corn is planted in rows four feet apart each 
way, how many hills to the acre? With three good 
ears to the hill, how many ears to the acre ? 

2. If it takes lOO ears to make a bushel, how many 
bushels to the acre? 

3. Which is the best crop? Five stalks to the hill 
that bear ears requiring 200 to make a bushel or 3 
stalks to the hill that bear ears requiring 100 to make 
a bushel? 

4. How many bushels per acre is one crop better 
than the other? 

5. Suppose a ten-acre field produces 60 bushels 
of corn per acre the first year, but falls ofif 5 bushels 
per acre yearly when corn is continually grown on it, 
what will be the yield the fourth year? 

6. What will be the total loss in the four years? 
With corn worth $0.30 per bushel what is the money 
loss? 

7. Suppose this loss can be avoided by rotation of 
crops. What is saved yearly, per acre, on this basis 
from rotation of crops? 

8. What is the value of one acre of tobacco, 1,500 
lbs., at $0.08 per lb. ? 



74 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

9. What is the vakie of one acre of oats, 60 bu., at 
$0.30 per bu. ? 

10. What is the vallie of one acre of clover, 3 tons, 
at $6 per ton ? 

11. What is the vakie of one acre of corn, 50 bu., 
at $0.40 per bu. ? 

12. What is the value of one acre of peas, 20 bu., 
at $1.50 per bu. ? 

13. You will observe that the above problems are 
based on the crop rotation of the last chapter. What 
is the entire value of the five years' crop ? 

14. What is the average yearly value of the crop? 

15. Pupils will furnish data for similar problems. 
Number of acres of different crops raised on the farm 
at home, yield per acre, price per bushel, ton, etc. 



CHAPTER XI 
INSECTS AND DISEASES THAT INJURE THE CROPS 

The farmer may prepare the soil ever so well, he 
may fertilize with the greatest of care, he may culti- 
vate thoroughly, the weather conditions may be favor- 
able, and yet he may lose all, or a portion of his crop 
through the attacks of insects or the ravages of plant 
diseases. 

Every child has seen potato bugs at work and knows 
full well the damage they will do in a short space of 
time. If they are not destroyed the crop of potatoes 
will be. However, the farmer has learned how to fight 
this pest successfully. But there are many other in- 
sects, injurious to the crop, which the average farmer 
has not yet learned how to fight, and he has paid but 
little attention to plant diseases. It is not within the 
province of this book to deal with these subjects in 
detail, but there are a few general principles which may 
be laid down here, and which will prove of value in 
the war that the farmer must continually wage against 
plant diseases and insect pests. 



76 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

It is necessary for us to know something of the life 
history of the insects which we fight — when they lay 
their eggs, where they lay them, when the eggs hatch, 
and the like. 

Insects are so called because they are "in sections." 
They have a head provided with a pair of feelers, a 
pair of strong jaws, a body to which are attached three 
pairs of legs, usually two pairs of wings, and an ab- 
domen. The abdomen is the back portion of the body 
made up of several ring-like sections and capable of 
holding a large amount of food. They breathe through 
little holes in their sides. There are ordinarily four 
stages of insect growth — the egg stage, the "grub" or 
caterpillar stage, the resting stage and the full grown 
insect. The tgg is laid by a full-grown insect in the 
ground, on the leaves of plants, in rotten wood, on the 
bark of trees, or even in the blossoms of plants, or in 
fruits. This Qgg hatches into what we usually call a 
grub or worm. The grub is a great eater and grows 
very rapidly, as those of you who have watched the 
young potato bugs grow can testify. It then hides 
itself somewhere and goes into the resting state, the 
pupa, from which it emerges a full-grown insect, 
ready to lay eggs and repeat this cycle. Some insects, 
as the potato bug, have legs in the "grub" stage, and 
others, like the grasshopper, do not go into a resting 



INSECTS AND PLANT DISEASES 



77 



state at all, but grow their wings as they hop about in 
search of food. 

For our convenience, we will divide insects into two 
classes — one class that eats the leaves, and another 
class the members of which are too small to eat leaves, 
but large enough to suck the sap of plants. 




THE FOUR STAGES OF INSECT GROWTH. 
Eggs on leaf, caterpillar, chrysalis or resting stage, full 
grown insect. 

Now, what can the farmer do if his crop is attacked 
by insects? If he can find out where these insects lay 
their eggs, he can destroy the eggs. If they lay them 
on weeds and rubbish, he can destroy them by keeping 
fence rows clean and fields free from weeds. If they 
lay them in the ground in the fall, he can plow the 
ground and freeze them out. If they are leaf -eating 
insects, he can spray the crop with water containing 
paris green and poison their food. If they are sap- 



78 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

sucking insects,. like plant lice, he can spray the trees 
or plants on which they live with a mixture of kerosene 
and soap suds, which will fill up the little breathing 
holes in the sides of their bodies and kill them. At the 
close of this chapter will be found formulae for spray- 
ing mixtures for both these kinds of insects. Some 
farmers plant a "trap" crop, that is, a crop earlier 
than the regular one, upon which the insects light to 
deposit their eggs. As soon as the eggs are laid the 
crop is destroyed, or else it is poisoned to destroy both 
the old insects and the young ones when they hatch. 

A word of caution in the use of poisons is necessary 
here. Cases are on record where people have been 
poisoned with paris green intended for insects. Of 
course, it should never be applied to cabbage or celery 
or any vegetable that is used for food. Currants have 
sometimes been poisoned in an effort to kill the currant 
worm. In no case should deadly poison be used on 
fruit trees after the fruit has begun to form. 

It is often convenient for the farmer to fight other 
enemies of his crop, known as plant diseases, while 
carrying on his fight against insects, as one spraying 
may be made to do for both. 

Rust, blight, smut, rot, and the like, are diseases 
which afflict the plant. They are caused by little, dust- 
like particles, called spores, that float around in the 



INSECTS AND PLANT DISEASES 79 

air and settle on healthy plants. Here they grow and 
multiply very rapidly. They injure the plant by living 
upon its sap — in much the same way that lice and ticks 
suck the blood of cattle and sheep. They must be 
destroyed or they will destroy the plant on which they 
feed. 

As soon as they make their appearance in the field 
or orchard the farmer should begin his fight. If it is 
blight, the affected part should be immediately cut off 
and burned. If this is not done the wind will carry 
the spores to the other trees, and soon the whole 
orchard will be affected. The other trees should be 
sprayed with Bordeaux mixture to prevent the spread 
of the disease. 

For some years past oat smut has been destroymg a 
large portion of the crop all over the United States, 
but this disease is now under control, as a way to kill 
the spores has been discovered. The treatment consists 
in soaking the seed for a few minutes in a solution of 
formaldehyde, and then spreading it out on the floor 
to dry before sowing. The recipe is given at the close 
of this chapter. 

So it is with all plant diseases — destroy the spores, 
and the disease is destroyed. The best medicine for 
this purpose is formaldehyde, a substance which can 
be obtained at any drug store. It will destroy the 
spores of more plant diseases than any other remedy 



80 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

yet discovered. It is usual to soak the seed in th& 
solution before planting. 

Care must be taken in applying mixtures for both 
insects and plant diseases not to get too much poison 
on the plants, as the crop itself may be injured thereby. 
Paris green may be sprinkled on potato vines with an 
old pepper box, if care is taken not to use too much. 
It should be dusted over the plants as one walks rap- 
idly along the row. Two pounds of poison is ample 
for an acre of potatoes. 

When the crop is troubled by both insects and plant 
diseases, the remedies may be mixed and applied at a 
single spraying. A good spraying pump costs from 
two dollars up. The recipes for, and the average cost 
of the mixtures is given below. 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

No. 38 — Spraying for Fruit Diseases. 
No. 45. — Some Insects Injurious to Stored Grain. 
No. 75. — The Grain Smuts: Cause and Prevention. 
. No. 91. — Potato Diseases and Their Treatment. 
No. 99. — Three Insect Enemies of Shade Trees. 
No. 127. — Important Insecticides. 
No. 132 — The Principal Insect Enemies of Wheat. 
No. 146. — Insecticides and Fungicides. 
No. 171.— The Control of The Codling Moth. 
No. 172. — Scale Insects and Mites on Citrus Trees. 
No. 196.— The Usefulness of the Toad. 
No. 212.— The Cotton Bollworm, 



INSECTS AND PLANT DISEASES 81 

SPRAYING MIXTURES. 

For Plant Diseases. 

(Bordeaux Mixture.) 

4 lbs. unslacked lime $.04 

6 lbs. copper sulphate at 5c 30 

Total $.34 

Dissolve each thoroughly in 25 gallons of water. When 
both are thoroughly dissolved, mix. Use wooden vessels. 
For Leaf-Eating Insects. 
Yi. lb. Paris green to 50 gallons water. Spray. 

Cost 15c 

For Sap-Sucking Insects. 

2 gallons kerosene $.25 

1 lb. hard soap (1 qt. soft soap) 10 

One gallon water 

Total cost„. $.35 

The above are the best remedies in general use. The 
first two may be combined, or rather the poison may be 
added to the first mixture. 

FORMALDEHYDE SOLUTION. 
For Oat And Wheat Smut And Potato Scab. 

1 pint (40 per cent) formaldehyde $0.50 

36 gallons of water 

Total $0.50 

Put seed in "gunny sack," soak in this solution for ten 
minutes, and spread out to dry. The above solution is 
sufficient for 40 bushels of seed. 



82 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

Problems. 

1. Suppose it takes 200 gals. Bordeaux mixture to 
spray an acre of potatoes. What is the cost of the 
mixture ? 

2. Suppose it takes two apphcations to cure the 
blight and each application requires a day's time, 
worth $1. What is the cost of the cure ? 

3. How many bushels of potatoes, worth $0.25, 
will it take to pay the cost of this cure? 

4. Suppose two fields of potatoes of an acre each 
owned by different farmers. One farmer sprays to 
cure the blight and gets 188 bushels of potatoes worth 
$0.25 per bu. The other neglects his field and gets but 
75 bu. What is the difference in the value of the two 
crops ? 

6. What did it cost the first farmer to apply the 
spray ? What is his actual gain over the other farmer ? 
Did it pay to spray? 

7. Suppose it takes two applications of two pounds 
of paris green each, and two days' time at $1 per day, 
to destroy the bugs on an acre of potatoes. How many 
bushels of potatoes, at $0.30, will it take to pay for the 
fight? 

8. Suppose the yield is increased from 50 bu. to 
200 bu. thereby. With potatoes at $0.20 per bu. what 
does the farmer gain? 



INSECTS AND PLANT DISEASES 83 

9. If both bugs and blight attack the crop, what 
is to be done ? What will be the cost of both remedies ? 
What will be saved by mixing the cures? 

10. How much does the formaldehyde solution cost 
per bushel for seed oats ? 

11. If 3 bu. are sown to the acre, what does this 
solution cost per acre? 

12. Suppose it takes a day's work worth $1 to treat 
the seed for 12 acres. What is the total cost of the 
treatment ? 

13. How many bushels of oats at $0.30 will it take 
to pay the cost of the treatment? 

14. Suppose the treatment increases the yield 20 
bu. per acre. How much does the farmer gain on his 
crop? 

15. How much is gained per acre by the use of the 
treatment ? 

16. What is the cost per acre of the treatment? 
The cost of the treatment for a 40-acre field? For a 
24-acre field? 

17. Pupils will furnish data for similar problems. 



CHAPTER XII 

THE FIGHT AGAINST WEEDS 

The Bible condemns man to eat bread in the sweat 
of his face. This is especially true of the farmer's 
life. His is a continual battle against the enemies of 
his crops. He must work hard, early and late, to com- 
bat the ravages of insect pests and plant diseases, but 
harder still to eradicate the weeds. 

Any plant where the farmer does not want it to be 
is a weed. Why are weeds objectionable? In the 
first place, they rob other plants of their food. Sup- 
pose you go every morning to feed the chickens, and, 
as soon as you throw down the grain for them, a 
great flock of pigeons from a neighboring farm should 
swoop down and pick up half of it before the chickens 
could get it! Would you not say to that neighbor: 
"If you don't take care of those pigeons, I shall"? 

Weeds rob the other plants of their food just as 
truly and just as effectually as the pigeons rob the 



THE FIGHT AGAINST WEEDS 85 

chickens in the illustration given above. If weeds are 
allowed to grow in a field, the crop is starved out. 
They rob the plants of moisture as well as of food. 
In the second place, they serve as a breeding ground 
for insects, as many insects seem to prefer to lay their 
eggs on weeds. In the third place, they shade small 
plants and rob them of much needed sunlight. These 
are the principal reasons why weeds should be de- 
stroyed. 

In order to fight weeds to the best advantage we 
must know something of their life history. They may 
be divided into three classes — annuals, biennials, and 
perennials. 

Annuals are those that go to seed every year and 
then die, coming up from the seed each year. Pig- 
weed, wild mustard, sweet clover and ragweed belong 
to this class. It is only necessary to prevent them from 
going to seed to destroy them. This class of weeds is 
the easiest one to fight. 

Biennials are plants that live for two years. They 
grow up from the seed one year, and grow a heavy 
root, but do not go to seed that year. The next year 
they come up from the root, go to seed and then die. 
If we pull them up by the roots the first year, or keep 
them from going to seed the second year, we can easily 
destroy them. Cutting them oflf, and not allowing 
them to go to seed for two years in succession, will 



86 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

have the same effect. Mullein, wild parsnip, burdock 
and bull thistle belong to this class. 

Perennials may go to seed every year, but their roots 
live on from year to year, and the only way to eradi- 
cate them is to destroy them root and branch — not an 
easy thing to do. Perennials give most trouble to the 
farmer. To this class belongs the large number of 




CANADA THISTLES, TPIE WORST OP WEEDS. 

''noxious" weeds, Canada thistle, ox-eye daisy, couch 
grass, sorrel and common dock. As soon as any of 
the above make their appearance on the farm, the 
farmer should dig them up and burn them. If they 
are allowed to spread they will soon have possession 
of the farm. The writer has seen whole plantations, 



THE FIGHT AGAINST WEEDS 87 

thousands of acres, in the South, surrendered to the 
ox-eye daisy. When weeds have driven the farmer 
off, the land is rendered valueless, as it is next to im- 
possible to subdue them, if they once have gained 
control. 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

Farmers' Bulletins. 

No. 28.— Weeds and How to Kill Them. 
No. 188. — Weeds Used in Medicine. 
Extracts. 

No. 133. — Birds as Weed Destroyers. 

Problems. 

1. If a clean field produces 6o bu. of corn per acre, 
and a weedy one only 35 bu. per acre, what is the loss 
caused by weeds, with corn at $0.35 per bu. ? 

2. What would be the loss on a 20-acre field at the 
same rate? 

3. For how many days' labor at $1 per day will an 
amount of money equal to this loss pay? 

4. Suppose it required only four days' work to 
keep an acre free from weeds. What would be the 
gain per acre? 

5. What would be the gain on a 24-acre field ? 

6. Is the quality of the corn from a weedy field 
ever so good as that from a clean field ? Why ? 



88 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

7. Suppose clean oats produce 65 bu. per acre and 
weedy oats produce only 48 bu. per acre. With oats 
at $0.30 per bu. what is the loss from weeds ? What is 
the loss on a i6-acre field ? 

8. Are oats grown in a weedy field as good in 
quality as clean grown oats ? Why ? 

9. Give several reasons for weedy oats. Can weeds 
in oats be easily destroyed after the oats are sown ? 

10. Will crop rotation prevent weeds in oats? 
What is a good crop for oats to follow ? Why ? 

11. A yield of 300 bu. of potatoes per acre would 
be an excellent crop. The land would need to be well 
cultivated and kept free from weeds to produce this. 
Suppose but 140 bu. are grown instead. What is the 
loss from lack of labor? At $0.25 per bu. what is the 
money value of this loss ? 

12. For how many days' labor at $1.25 per day will 
an amount of money equal to this loss pay ? 

13. Suppose only twelve days' extra labor were 
required to give the larger yield. How much would 
be gained? 

14. If the farmer did these extra 12 days' work 
himself, what would he get per day for his time ? 

15. Pupils will furnish data from their own ex- 
perience and from home for similar problems. 



CHAPTER XIII 



THE STOCK ON THE FARM 



The successful farmer avoids "scrub" stock. He 
has learned two important facts : First, that it pays 
to take good care of his stock, and second, that it costs 
no more, in care and feed, to raise a good animal than 
to raise a poor one. Now, let us analyze these two 
propositions and see how a thorough understanding 
of these truths affects the farmer's success. 

As will be more fully discussed in the next chapter, 
animals must be fed for several reasons. In the first 
place, they must grow, and the food that they eat fur- 
nishes the material for this growth. In the second 
place, they must be kept warm, and the fuel for animal 
heat comes from their food. Again, if some special 
product, like milk, is to be produced, this, too, must 
come from the food. Why does it pay to take good 
care of stock? 

Care is here meant to include food, shelter and gen- 
eral attention. If the animal is to grow rapidly it 



00 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

must be well fed, since the food furnishes the material 
for this increase in weight. Not only this, but it must 
be fed regularly. If not, its digestive organs become 
deranged ; that is, it becomes dyspeptic, and its food 
passes off without being properly digested. 

Stock should be provided with shelter at all seasons 
of the year, to protect them from the heat and storms 
of summer and the cold of winter. If their stables are 
cold, then the additional heat, required to keep them 
warm, must be furnished by additional food. Animals, 
like persons, are very sensitive to sudden changes of 
temperature, to sleet and snow, and cold and wind. 
They "catch cold," get sick, and lose flesh in conse- 
quence. How necessary, then, for the farmer to pro- 
vide a shed for the cattle to run under during storms, 
a tight board fence on the north and west sides of the 
barnyard to break the wind, and warm stables for all 
his stock. 

General attention covers that watchful care so 
necessary to successful stock raising. Barns and barn- 
yards must be kept clean, stalls bedded, pure water 
provided, stock kept free from ticks and lice, horses 
curried, their feet attended to, the health of all animals 
carefully watched, diseased ones removed and shut up 
by themselves; these, all these, and a thousand and 
one other little things, constitute the general attention 
which the successful farmer gives to his stock. 



THE STOCK ON THE FARM 91 

We can best prove that it pays by imagining the re- 
sult of a lack of such care. With neglect, more food is 
required to make the animals grow, and more food 
needed to keep them warm. Neglected animals grow 
slowly, are "stunted" in growth, finally stop growing 
altogether, and sometimes sicken and die. Dirty ani- 
mals are unhealthy and get ''scabby" and *'lousy." 
Unless carefully attended to, horses get the thrush or 
contracted feet, are ''foundered" and ruined. Cows 
exposed to wet and cold or chased by dogs, "shrink in 
milk." All these conditions cause great loss to the 
farmer. No one can doubt that it pays to take good 
care of the stock. 

Now for the other proposition : It costs no more, 
in feed and care, to raise a good animal than it does 
to raise a poor one. A scrub cow takes as much stable 
room, eats as much hay, requires as much pasture, 
takes as much time to milk, needs as much general at- 
tention, and, in the end, returns about half as much 
product to the farmer. A "scrub" colt requires all 
that a blooded colt requires, and is worth about half 
as much on the market. A "scrub" sheep is no better 
than a "scrub" cow. She produces about half as much 
wool and raises a "scrub" lamb that sells for about 
half what a good one brings. There is nothing bad 
enough to say of a "scrub" hog. It certainly requires 
as much care as a genuine "porker." What does it 



92 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

bring on the market ! Not half what a well bred pig 
of the same age will bring ! 

If more facts are needed to convince you of the 
truth of the two propositions stated at the beginning 
of this chapter, they will be found in the list of prac- 
tical problems which follow. 




FANCY SHEEP. 



One thing must not be lost sight of, however. Hay 
and grain fed to stock are not entirely wasted. In a 
ton of hay, worth $6, there is at least $3 worth of 
manure, if it is carefully saved and returned to the 
land. But $3 in value has actually disappeared when 
the hay has been fed. Ten dollars' worth of oats, or 



THE STOCK ON THE FARM 



93 



corn, or barley, fed to stock, will give in return $3.50 
worth of manure. Below is given a table showing the 
actual cash value of the manure produced by different 
farm animals, during the year, when they are kept in 
stalls and the manure carefully saved. On the average 







WELL BRED PIGS. 

farm at least two-thirds of this value is wasted. Pupils 
should use the second table for ordinary problems. 
To the increase in the value of the animal, produced 
by feeding a certain amount of feed, must be added 
the value of the manure produced by the animal from 
the food that is eaten. 



94 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

No. 41. — Fowls: Care and Feeding. 
>, No. 51. — Standard Varieties of Chickens. 

I No. 64. — Ducks and Geese: Breeds and Management. 

No. 100. — Hog Raising in the South. 

No. 141. — Poultry Raising on the Farm. 

No. 179. — Horseshoeing. 

No. 200. — Turkeys: Breeds and Management. 

No. 205. — Pig Management. 

Extracts. 

No. 15. — Some Practical Suggestions for the Suppres- 
sion and Prevention of Bovine Tuberculosis. 

Table IX. 

Table showing value of manure, per head, produced 
annually by farm animals: 

Horse $27.00 

Cow 19.00 

Hog 12.00 

Sheep 2.00 

Table X. 

Table showing value of manure, per animal, saved 
annually from animals by the average farmer: 

Horse $10.00 

\ Cow 6.00 

Hog 4.00 

Sheep 75 



THE STOCK ON THE FARM 95 



Problems. 



1. A cow requires about 4 ft. by 9 ft. floor space 
for a stall, with 4 ft. by 3 ft. additional for a manger. 
How much floor space will be required for 20 cows ? 

2. Will it be best to stand the cattle in one long 
row or in two rows of 10 each ? 

3. If in two rows, would you have them face each 
other with the manger between or face the wall? 
Why? 

4. What will be the dimensions of a barn for 20 
cows in two rows of 10 each, using the floor space 
given in the first problem? 

5. Draw a plan of this barn with cows facing each 
other. With the cows facing the wall. What are the 
advantages and disadvantages of each plan ? 

6. How many feet of two-inch plank will it take 
to lay the floor in this barn ? Find cost of same at $25 
per thousand. 

7. What will be the cost of a cement floor for same 
at IOC per sq. ft. ? 

8. Will "scrub" cattle require the same room ? 
Note. — In the following examples, do not forget to 

add the value of the manure produced to the value of 
the product. 



96 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

9. If a cow eats 3 tons of hay worth $6 per ton, 
1,000 lbs. of ground feed worth $0.80 per cwt., and 
pasture amounting to $5 in a year, what does it cost a 
farmer to keep a cow? Will a "scrub" cow cost as 
much ? 

10. A "scrub" will give 15 lbs. of milk daily for 
300 days in the year, worth $0.80 per cwt., and raise a 
calf worth $3. What is the farmer's profit on her? 

11. A Durham cow will give 25 lbs. of milk daily 
for the same time and raise a calf worth $5. What is 
the farmer's profit on her? 

12. How much more does he make on the Durham 
than on the "scrub"? 

13. If it costs 2 tons of hay, 40 bu. of oats and $6 
worth of pasture annually to raise a colt, what does it 
cost to raise a horse 4 years old with hay at $5 per ton 
and oats at $0.30 per bu. ? 

14. A "scrub" colt will bring about $80. Has the 
farmer lost or gained, and how much ? 

15. A coach horse will bring $150 instead. What 
has the farmer gained or lost on this colt? Which is 
the more profitable animal ? 

16. If it takes 3 tons of hay worth $6 per ton, 50 
bu. of oats worth $0.25 per bu., and $10 worth of pas- 
ture to keep 10 sheep for a year, what is the cost per 
head? 

17. If one "scrub" sheep will shear about 4 lbs. 



THE STOCK ON THE FARM 97 

of wool worth $0.20 per lb., and raise a lamb that will 
weigh about 50 lbs. and bring about $3.50 per cwt., 
what will the entire flock return to the farmer ? What 
will each sheep return ? Will he gain or lose, and how 
much? 

18. If of a good breed, each will shear about 8 lbs. 
of wool and raise a lamb weighing about 70 lbs., worth 
$5 per cwt. What will this flock return? What will 
each sheep return? 

19. How much per head will be the farmer's gain 
on a well-bred flock ? 

20. If it takes 12 bu. of corn worth $0.35 per bu. 
and $3 worth of other feed to raise a pig until it is six 
months old, what is the cost of the pig to the farmer? 

21. If a "scrub," it will weigh about 125 lbs. at six 
months and bring $4 per cwt. Will the farmer gain 
or lose? 

22. If a Poland China it will weigh about 200 lbs. 
and be worth $4.75 per cwt. What is the pig worth ? 
Will the farmer gain or lose and how much ? 

23. How much more will the blooded pig bring on 
the market than the scrub ? 

24. Pupils will furnish data on the weight of ani- 
mals sold, the number pounds of milk, wool, etc., pro- 
duced, the price of feed and products for similar 
problems. 



CHAPTER XIV 



FEEDING THE STOCK 



We all know that farm animals should be fed, well 
fed, but we do not all know exactly why they need 
feeding. Some of the reasons were mentioned in the 
last chapter. Let us name them all now : 

1. To repair the waste. 

2. To build up the body. 

3. To keep the body warm. 

4. To furnish energy for the body. 

5. To make special products — milk, eggs, wool and 
the like. 

As the horse works, and the sheep or cow walks 
about in search of food, or even in the ordinary func- 
tions of life, the animal body is continually wearing 
away. What child has not noticed the horses grow 
poor during the ''spring work" or observed that he 
himself has lost weight after great exertion ! This loss 
in weight is the zvastc that must be repaired, and for 
this repair food is necessary. For this very reason 



FEEDING THE STOCK 00 

farmers always feed their horses more when they work 
them hard. 

Growing animals must not only keep this waste re- 
paired, but they must also increase in weight. For 
this reason they need more food in proportion to their 
size. First, waste must be repaired before the animal 
can grow ; then, whatever is left over goes toward 
building up the body. 

Work horses must feel strong; that is, they must 
be full of energy. But what is energy ? Simply this : 
power to do work. A healthy man has more energy 
than a healthy boy. He has stronger muscles. He 
has greater power to do work and can endure more of 
it. So the horse, to do work, must have muscular 
energy. His muscles are formed from the food that 
he eats. 

The milk cow must have more food than the one 
that gives no milk. She must have food to build up 
her body, to repair the waste, to keep her warm, to 
furnish her with energy, and, besides this, she must 
have additional food out of which to make milk. Let 
her food supply decrease and she will at once show it 
in the reduced amount of milk that she gives. You 
have all noticed this shrinkage when the pastures get 
"short" in summer. So, too, the sheep must have 
extra food out of which to make wool, and the hen 
requires special food from which to make eggs. 

tOFC. 



100 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

If a man were to start a shoe factory, he would buy 
leather, pegs, nails and thread. These are the raw 
materials out of which he makes shoes. If he were to 
start a chair factory, he would buy lumber instead. 
That is, his selection of material would depend upon 
the kind of product he expected to manufacture. It 
is just the same in the feeding of farm animals. If milk 
is to be produced, then foods that make milk must be 
fed. If eggs are wanted, hens must be fed egg-pro- 
ducing foods. If work is to be done, then foods which 
make energy must be supplied. The horse is a machine 
to do work, the hen an egg-making machine, the cow 
a milk factory. Different foods are the raw materials ; 
eggs and milk, the manufactured products. 

But, you say, we know that lumber is needed to 
make chairs ; leather, nails and thread necessary in the 
manufacture of shoes; but we don't know what will 
make milk and eggs. Well, you have grasped at the 
question that underlies the whole system of feeding, 
and until the farmer determines for himself the best 
and most economical food to be used in order to pro- 
duce the desired results, farming will not pay him its 
largest returns. 

Foods are conveniently divided into three classes — 
fats, protein, and carbohydrates. These are big words, 
but they are easily understood. Butter, lard, tallow, 
and all kinds of oils come under the head of fats. The 



FEEDING THE STOCK 101 

white of egg Is almost pure protein ; the sticky part of 
flour is protein ; the scum on the top of boiled milk is 
protein ; the principal part of cheese, the curd, is pro- 
tein ; lean meat is composed largely of protein ; glue is 
protein ; the hide, hair, wool, and feathers of animals 
are largely protein. You all know the odor of burned 
feathers ; any kind of substance that scorches and 
gives off that odor contains protein. 

Starch, sugar and vegetable fibre are called carbo- 
hydrates. In a certain sense, fats, too, are carbo- 
hydrates, but they are usually put in a class by them- 
selves. When carbohydrates are spoken of in this 
'book fats are meant to be included. 

Now, the great difference between protein foods 
and the carbohydrates is this : protein contains nitro- 
gen and the carbohydrates do not. Nitrogen, as you 
will remember, is the substance taken from the air by 
the bacteria on the roots of the legumes and added to 
the soil. You will also remember it as the principal one 
of the three plant foods that become exhausted from 
the soil. 

By consulting the table at the end of this chapter, 
you will readily learn the amount of protein and carbo- 
hydrates in the different feeding stuffs. A "balanced" 
ration is one in which there is about six times as 
much carbohydrates as protein. A ration containing 
a larger proportion of carbohydrates is called a "wide" 



102 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

ration; one containing less than six times as much car- 
bohydrates as protein is called a ''narrow" ration. 
By a balanced ration, we mean the best ration to feed 
under ordinary conditions. For dry feeds the com- 
bined weight of both the protein and the carbohydrates 
should be equal to at least one-half the total weight 
of the ration. 

Foods rich in protein are bone and muscle-formers. 
Those rich in carbohydrates are fat formers. Carbo- 
hydrates keep the body warm. If muscle is to be built 
up, then muscle-forming foods should be fed. Farmers 
have learned that corn alone is a good grain for horses 
only in the winter time. The reason is plain. Corn is rich 
in carbohydrates. These supply heat and produce fat. 
Oats are rich in protein, a muscle builder, and furnish 
energy. In spring time it is muscle and energy that is 
wanted, not heat and fat. 

Sheep need food rich in protein. Why? Wool is 
to be produced. Wool is composed principally of pro- 
tein. Hens are expected to lay eggs. What should 
they be fed? Corn produces fat. A strictly corn diet 
should therefore be avoided. Eggs are composed 
largely of protein. Feed protein foods. The shells 
are composed of mineral matter. Lime, broken or 
ground bone, ashes and gravel should always be where 
the hens can get at them. In general : Nature has 
provided, in summer, proper foods for most farm ani- 



FEEDING THE STOCK 



103 



mals, and the nearer summer conditions can be dupli- 
cated the greater will be the farmer's success. 

Pigs, fed exclusively on a corn diet, sometimes have 
weak bones. Why? Because there is not enough 
mineral matter in corn out of which to make strong 




A PRIZE PERCHERON 

bones. Growing pigs should be fed protein foods, 
with plenty of mineral matter in them to form bone 
and muscle. Later, when fattening time comes, fat- 



104 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

producing foods, like corn, should be fed. In most 
foods there is an abundance of carbohydrates. The 
chief difficulty will be to provide sufficient protein to 
bring the ratio up to six to one ; that is, so that there 
will not be more than six times as much carbohydrates 
as there is protein in the ration. In other words, for 
every six pounds of carbohydrates there should be at 
least one pound of protein. For young and growing 
animals it should be considerably more than that. 

As has been stated, fat is usually put in a class by 
itself, and not combined with the carbohydrates as it is 
in this book. This is one reason : One pound of fat 
will produce about 214 times as much heat and energy 
as one pound of carbohydrates, so that one pound of 
fat is equal to 2i/4 pounds of carbohydrates in feeding 
value. If we have i lb. of fat, 3% lbs. of carbohydrates 
and I lb. of protein in a given ration, we have a ratio 
of 6 to I. In the following table the fat has already 
been added to the carbohydrates, so that, in order to 
find the nutritive ratio, it will only be necessary for 
you to use the following rule: Divide the total amount 
of carbohydrates in the ration by the total amount of 
protein. 

If the result is greater than 6, more protein should 
be added. This ratio is generally considered the best 
for all animals except those that are fattening, when a 
larger amount of cheaper carbohydrates can be fed 



FEEDING THE STOCK 105 

with profit. Full grown animals can get along very 
well on a much smaller proportion of protein, while 
young, growing animals require a larger proportion 
than this, because protein is a bone and muscle builder. 

The great problem of economical feeding is to find 
those foods that will produce the desired results with 
the least possible expense. It is not necessarily the 
cheapest foods that will do this. 

In this connection, it may be well to call attention 
to the farm scales, something that should be found on 
every well-regulated farm. The farmer may, then, 
from time to time, experiment with different feeds, 
both as to quantity and kind, and by frequent weigh- 
ings of the animals so fed, determine the effect of such 
feeding. Besides, scales are very handy in selling 
produce, weighing milk and in a thousand and one 
other ways. They are comparatively inexpensive, and 
will, with proper use, pay for themselves in a very 
short time. 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

Farmers' Bulletins. 

No. 22.— The Feeding of Farm Animals. 

No. 36.— Cotton Seed and Its Products. 

No. 49.— Sheep Feeding. ^ 

No. 58.— The Soy Bean as a Forage Crop. 

No. 170.— The Principles of Horse Feeding. 



lOG ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

Table XI. 
Table showing digestible nutrients in feeding stuffs: 
POUNDS PER TON. 

Kind of Feed.. Protein. Carbohydrates. 

Soy Beans 310 800 

Cow peas 210 800 

Clover hay 170 920 

Red top hay 95 980 

■ Mixed hay 88 880 

Timothy hay 56 920 

Corn fodder 50 710 

Rape, green 42 170 

Corn silage 24 290 

Oat straw 24 920 

Sugar beet pulp, fresh 13 140 

Rye straw 12 830 

Wheat straw 8 740 

POUNDS PER HUNDREDWEIGHT. 

*Cotton seed meal 40 40 

*Linseed meal 32 42 

*Gluten meal 25 60 

Malt sprouts 18 46 

Wheat bran 12 46 

Wheat middlings 12 58 

Brewer's grains, dry 10 50 

Whole milk 3 1-3 13 

Skim milk 3 6 

*These feeds are very rich in fat and should be fed 
sparingly. 



FEEDING THE STOCK 107 

POUNDS PER BUSHEL 

Dry peas 10 32 

Rye 5 39 

Barley 4 32 

Corn 3^ 40 

Oats 3 19 



Table XII. 

Table showing approximate amounts of protein and 
carbohydrates required daily by farm animals of average 
size: 

Animal. Protein. Carbohydrates. 

Dairy cow 2 lbs. 12 lbs. 

Work horse 2 lbs. 12 lbs. 

Calves under 1 yr 1 lb. 6 lbs. 

Pigs, growing i^ lb. 2^ lbs. 

Lambs, growing 1-5 lb. 1 lb. ' 

Note: This amount varies with the size and age of 
the animal. Fattening stock can be profitably fed a great- 
er allowance of carbohydrates in the form of grain, like 
corn and barley. 

Problems. 

I. How many pounds of protein in a bushel of 
oats? With oats at $0.30 per bu., what does this protein 
cost per lb. ? 



108 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

2. How many lbs. protein in bu. of barley? With 
barley at $0.44 per bu., what does protein in this form 
cost per lb. ? 

3. Which is the cheaper feed at these prices ? How 
much? 

4. What is the cost per lb, of protein in rye at 
$0.60 per bu. ? 

5. What is the cost per lb. of protein in corn at 
$0.35 per bu. ? 

6. At the above prices which is the cheapest feed? 

7. Which is probably the best feed for fattening 
purposes ? Why ? 

8. Suppose all kinds of hay sell at the uniform 
price of $8 per ton. What is the price of protein per 
lb. in each of the four kinds of hay given above? 

9. Which is the cheapest feed ? 

10. What is the best kind of straw to feed and 
why? How do we find the "nutritive ratio"? What 
is the nutritive ratio of clover hay? Is it a balanced 
ration ? 

11. Find the nutritive ratio of all the feeds given 
in the tables. 

12. Which are most nearly ''perfect" feeds — i. e., 
which have a ratio of about 6 to i ? 

13. Which are the poorest feeds — i.e., which have 
the lowest ratio of protein? 



FEEDING THE STOCK 109 

14. Which are the feeds having the largest propor- 
tion of protein ? 

15. Are any of the feeds given in the table so poor 
that, in themselves, they are practically worthless? 
If so, name them. 

Illustration. — One ton of mixed hay contains 88 lbs. 
protein and 880 lbs. carbohydrates. Its ratio is 10 to 1. 
Let us mix it with some other feed to bring the ratio up 
to about 6 to 1. We shall try peas. We shall feed 1 bu. 
of ground peas with every hundred lbs. of hay. 

Feed. Protein. Carbohydrates. 

100 lbs. hay contains o. 4.4 44 

60 lbs. peas contain 10. 32 

160 lbs. mixed, contain 14.4 76 

Dividing protein by carbohydrates (76 by 14.4) we get 
a little more than 5 to 1. We have more protein than 
we need. Let us try again with ^ bu. of peas instead. 

Feed. Protein. Carbohydrates. 

100 lbs. hay contains 4.4 44 

30 lbs. peas contain 5. 16 

130 lbs. mixed, contain 9.4 60 

Again dividing (60 by 9.4) we get 6.3, about right, and 
a much cheaper feed. Now, how much of this ration shall 
we feed to a dairy cow? The table shows us that a cow 
needs about 2 lbs. protein daily, so this will be about 
enough for five days. One-fifth of each feed will give us 
as a result 20 lbs. of hay and 6 lbs. of peas for the daily 
ration. 

16. With the ration given in the illustration, how 
long will a ton of hay last a cow ? 



110 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

17. How many bushels of ground peas will be re- 
quired in the same time? 

18. What will it cost to feed the cow for this time 
with hay at $7 per ton and peas at $1 per bu. ? 

19. Suppose she gives 25 lbs. of milk daily on this 
ration. With milk at $1.20 per cwt., what is gained? 

20. Make a ration of clover hay and corn in the 
same way and figure its cost. 

21. Make a ration of oat straw, clover hay, and 
ground peas. 

Experiment until you get about the right ratio, be- 
ing careful not to use more grain than is necessary. 

22. Figure its cost at these prices of feed. 

23. How long will your ration feed a work horse? 
What is the cost of this feed for a horse for one day ? 

24. Make a ration of oats, hay and straw for work 
horses. Add a little cotton seed meal to supply pro- 
tein. When you get the ration ''balanced" figure its 
cost. You may have to try several times, but doji't 
give up. Figure its daily cost per horse and compare 
with cost in last problem. 

25. Pupils tell price of feeds, kinds grown on farm 
at home, stock to be fed, etc., as data for other feeding 
problems. 



CHAPTER XV 

THE THREE C'S— COWS, CORN AND CLOVER 

All who understand the conditions are agreed that 
diversified farming will yield the largest returns with 
least waste to the fertility of the soil. But what is 
meant by diversified farming? 

When a farmer grows wheat to sell, and little else, 
that may be called wheat farming. If he depends upon 
tobacco alone, we call that tobacco farming. If he 
plants his entire farm to corn and feeds it to hogs for 
the market, we may properly call that kind of farming 
corn and hog farming. Whenever he engages in two 
or more kinds of farming his work becomes ''diversi- 
fied." The greater the number of different things he 
raises the greater the diversification. 

But we have agreed that it is not a good thing to 
raise grain or tobacco exclusively, for the market. 
We have learned that this kind of farming soon wears 
out the soil, and does not pay in the long run. We 
have learned, too, that milk products contain little soil 



112 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

matter and arc therefore easy on the soil We have 
observed that the animals usually sold off the farm 
contain but small quantities of soil matter in propor- 
tion to the feed that they consume. We now know 
that clover feeds upon the free nitrogen of the air, 
and thus increases the store of nitrogen in the soil. 
We have learned that nitrogen is the principal ingre- 
dient in protein, the feed most sought after by the pro- 
gressive farmer. From an examination of the table, 
we find that clover hay is richer in protein than any 
other kind of hay. A little calculation shows us that 
it contains about twice as much protein as redtop, 
three times as much as timothy, eight times as much as 
oat straw, fifteen times as much as rye straw, and 
thirty times as much as wheat straw. On average 
land a larger amount of clover, or some other legume 
adapted to the soil, can be grown per acre than of any 
other hay crop, and, since it adds nitrogen to the soil, 
it is by far the best hay crop to raise. 

Another examination of the table reveals the fact 
that corn is one of the richest of grains, and since corn 
is one of the richest of fodders in feeding value, and 
the yield is heavy, corn is an excellent crop to raise. 

Cows, corn and clover are a splendid combination 
for other reasons. Corn requires frequent cultivation 
and the soil is improved thereby. Weeds are exter- 
minated, the ground is plowed deeper, and the manure 



THE THREE CS— COWS, CORN AND CLOVER 113 

is thoroughly mixed with the soil. Besides being an 
excellent feeding stuff, and adding nitrogen to the 
soil, clover is a splendid crop to sow with oats, follow- 
ing corn, offering an excellent opportunity for rota- 
tion of crops, the advantages of which have already 
been pointed out. 




COV^S IN A CLOVER FIELD. 

Cows are a constant source of income to the farmer, 
and, at the same time, they supply him with the cheap- 
est and best of fertilizers. You will remember, that if 
the manure from a single cow were carefully saved 
during the year and applied to the soil its value as 
fertilizer would be nearly $20, besides improving the 
texture of the soil to a marked degree. 

With cows, corn and clover, the raising of sheep and 
hogs is made possible and profitable. The cows and 



114 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

clover furnish milk and pasture for the growing ani- 
mals, while corn is one of the best of fat-producers. 
Tobacco raising can also be engaged in, if the farmer 
is careful not to exhaust the fertility of his soil by too 
frequent cropping with tobacco. Sugar beets, too, 
are a source of good income to the farmer, and if the 
factory is so located that the pulp may be had for* 
feeding purposes, or for manure, they also can be 
grown with little loss to the soil. Sugar is a carbo- 
hydrate and, like butter, it is formed from the food 
matter which the plants get from the air and the 
water ; but it must be remembered that beets are heavy 
feeders and, if the return of the pulp is impossible, 
they, like tobacco, will soon wear out the soil. 

The reader must not make the mistake of thinking 
that the system of diversified farming outlined here is 
necessarily the best system. The greatest flexibility is 
allowable, depending upon the location of the farm, 
the character of the soil, nearness to factories and 
markets, and various other conditions. But, it is easily 
seen, that in the North Central States, at least, cows, 
corn, and clover should form the basis of any system 
of diversified farming. 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

No. 81. — Corn Culture in the South. 

No. 199. — Corn Growing. 

No. 106.— Breeds of Dairy Cattle. 

No. 143. — Conformation of Beef and Dairy Cattle. 



THE THREE CS-COWS, CORN AND CLOVER HS 
Problems. 

1. A ration for cows consists of one ton of clover 
hay with lo bu. each of ground corn and oats. How 
long will this feed a cow, feeding two lbs. of protein 
daily ? 

2. What is the total and daily cost of this ration 
with hay at $7, corn at $0.40 and oats at $0.30 ? 

3. What will it cost to keep a herd of 12 cows for 
200 days on this ration? 

4. On another farm, timothy hay, oat straw, bran 
and oats are mixed in the following proportions : One 
ton each of hay and straw, 20 bu. of oats and 1,000 
lbs. of bran. Is this a balanced ration ? 

5. How long will this ration keep a cow? A herd 
of 15 cows? 

6. With hay worth $7, oats $0.30, straw $4 and 
bran $0.80 per cwt., what is the total cost of this 
ration? The cost per cow, per day? 

7. What is the cost of feeding a herd of 12 cows 
for 200 days on this ration? 

8. Compare the rations in problems i and 4. Which 
costs the more? Which is the nearer to a balanced 
ration? Which is likely to produce the better results 
in feeding? 

9. Suppose 20 lbs. of each ration to be the daily 
allowance for each cow. How long would each ration 
last a cow ? What would be the daily cost "? 



116 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

10. Which is the cheaper ration under these con- 
ditions ? 

11. It must be remembered that in order to get 
the best results a cow should be fed about 2 lbs. of 
protein daily. How much does she get with each 
ration ? 

12. Disregarding the value of the carbohydrates, 
what is the cost of the protein in each ration ? 

13. A lack of protein means a smaller quantity of 
milk. Suppose cows fed on 20 lbs. of the clover-corn- 
oats ration gave 20 lbs. of milk daily, while those fed 
on the hay-straw-oats-bran ration gave but 15 lbs. of 
milk daily. With milk at $0.80 per cwt., what is the 
gain by using the first ration ? 

14. Find the cost of each ration for a herd of ten 
cows for the same time. 

15. Now determine whether the cheapest ration is 
the most economical. 

16. Which is the better ration to feed under the 
above conditions? 

17. Make rations with different kinds of feeds, and 
figure the cost of the protein therein. 

18. When you have finished, compare results and 
note that cows, corn and clover seem to go well to- 
gether and give the best results. 

19. Pupils furnish data from home— for similar 
problems. 



CHAPTER XVI 



THE DAIRY 



Milk, butter and cheese are the products of the 
dairy. Whether the farmer should sell his milk, or 
make it into butter or cheese, depends upon nearness 
to factories and markets, the relative price of milk 
products and other local conditions. It must be con- 
stantly kept in mind that the sale of milk to con- 
sumers takes from the farm all the soil elements found 
in whole milk. The sale of cheese returns a portion of 
soil fertility with the whey, while the sale of butter 
removes practically nothing of a soil nature. The milk 
required to produce a ton of butter contains about 
450 pounds of fertilizing substances, the cheese, made 
from the same amount of milk, contains about half 
as much of such substances, and the butter that this 
milk will produce contains less than five pounds of 
soil fertility. The reason is plain. Butter fat is a 
carbohydrate, and carbohydrates, you will remember, 
come from the air and the water, not from the soil. 



118 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

Hence, with milk at the same price per hundred at 
both butter and cheese factories, it is far better to 
make butter than cheese for the market. Again, when 
butter is made, the skim milk is available to feed on 
the farm. Whey is of much less feeding value. 

The use of the farm separator is increasing. This 
machine is a great time saver. The skim milk may be 
fed warm and sweet, soon after being drawn from the 
cow. Only the cream need be hauled to the factory, 
and that but two or three times a week. 




JERSEY cow. 



Cleanliness is the watchword of the dairy. This 
cannot be too strongly stated. Good milk, pure milk, 
sweet milk are essential, if good butter and cheese, 
capable of commanding the highest market prices, are 



THE DAIRY 



119 



to be made. Milk and milk products are spoiled by 
bad flavors and bad odors. Bad flavors and bad odors 
in milk are caused by the cows eating improper food 
and drinking impure water, and by uncleanliness on 
the part of the dairyman in the care of the milk. Milk 
cows should not be allowed to drink stagnant or 
muddy water, or to eat "tainted" food, as musty hay, 
cabbage, rape, garlic, wild onions, or ragweed. These 




HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN COW. 



will certainly impart a bad odor and a bad flavor to 
the milk, which the most careful handling will not 
remove. 

In the second place, milk is a very great absorbent, 



120 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



and should never be allowed to stand around the barn, 
or in any other place where the air is filled with bad 
odors. 

But the most fruitful source of bad milk is unclean- 
liness on the part of the dairyman in the care of the 
cow, and of the milking utensils. Milk should be kept 
pure and sweet. Sour milk, or bad milk, is caused by 
tiny bacteria, too small to be seen with the naked eye ; 




RED POLLED COW. 



in fact, so small that they can only be seen with the 
aid of the strongest microscopes. Under favorable 
conditions these bacteria increase in numbers very 



THE DAIRY 121 

rapidly. They seem to thrive best in warm, darnp 
weather. They Hve everywhere — on the hay, in the 
bedding, on the clothes and hands of the milker, on 
the cow's hair, in the milk cans and pails, and in the 
air. New milk, freshly drawn from the cow, contains 
none of these bacteria, but they soon get into it and 
begin at once their rapid multiplication. When they 
have increased sufficiently in numbers, the milk begins 
to smell and taste sour and ''bad." Only care and 
cleanliness will prevent these bacteria from getting into 
the milk. If the bacteria are kept out, the milk will 
keep sweet for a long time. Heating it to the tempera- 
ture of 150 degrees kills these germs, and is one com- 
mon way of keeping milk sweet. 

The milker should see to it that his hands are clean. 
He should carefully brush from the cow, before sitting 
down to milk, all dust, dirt, dandruff and loose hair 
likely to fall into the pail. He should have his milking 
clothes frequently washed and scalded to destroy the 
bacteria thereon, and he should remove the milk to a 
clean place, where the air is pure and free from bac- 
teria, as soon as he possibly can. Aerating the milk, 
that is, allowing it to drain slowly through a strainer 
placed several feet above the can, where pure air can 
blow through it as it falls, will do much to remove any 
bad odors it may already contain. Pails and cans 
should be kept scrupulously clean. They should be 



U2 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



rinsed with boiling water after each milking to kill 
all bacteria that may adhere to them. If little par- 
ticles of milk are allowed to stick to the rough places 
in the cans and pails, it is impossible to keep milk 
sweet in them, because the bacteria live and multiply 
in these particles. As soon as pure milk is placed in 




Open. 




Closed. 
A BABCOCK TESTER. 




A CREAM SEPARATOR. 



such utensils, these germs at once begin their rapid 
increase, and the milk spoils in a few hours. The 



THE DAIRY 



123 



whole secret of keeping milk sweet lies in preventing 
the bacteria from getting into it. 

Next in importance to the care of the milk comes 
the selection of the herd. Since most creameries and 
cheese factories now pay by the test, that is, pay for 
the amount of butter fat that the milk contains, it is 
important to the dairyman that his milk tests well, and 
that his cows give a reasonably large flow of milk. 
In general, no cow is profitable to the dairyman whose 
milk tests much less than three per cent of butter fat. 




A MODEL cow BARN. 
(Edg-ewood Farm.) 



Neither is one which gives less than twelve pounds of 
milk daily, no matter how rich it is. Every farmer 



124 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

should own a small Babcock tester, and test every cow 
in his herd. Such a tester, with directions and com- 
plete outfit for testing milk, can be bought for six 
or seven dollars. Each cow in the herd should be 
tested, her milk carefully weighed and her dairy value 
figured out. All unprofitable cows should be disposed 
of. The best cows in the herd may then be kept for 
breeding purposes. In this way the herd will be 
greatly improved and dairying made much more 
profitable. 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
Farmers' Bulletins. 

No. 29. — Souring of Milk and Other Changes in Milk 
Products. 

No. 42.— Facts about Milk. 

No. 55.— The Dairy Herd: Its Formation and Man> 
agement. 

No. 57. — Butter Making on the Farm. 

No. 63. — Care of Milk on the Farm. 

No. 151. — Dairying in the South. 

No. 166. — Cheese Making on the Farm. 

No. 201. — The Cream Separator on Western Farms. 

Definition. — A per cent is a fraction whose de- 
nominator is loo. Thus: i-ioo is i per cent. 2-100 is 
2 per cent, 5-100 is 5 per cent, and so on. There are 
three ways of writing per cents, thus: 2-100 = .02 = 
2 %. They all mean exactly the same thing. 



THE DAIRY 125 

Problems. 

1. How many pounds of butter fat in 5,000 pounds 
of milk that tests 4 per cent? 

2. A farmer owns a herd of 15 cows that average 
24 pounds of milk per head daily. How many pounds 
of milk does he get in six months (thirty days each) ? 

3. li this milk tests 3.5 per cent, and butter fat is 
worth 25 cents per pound, what does he receive 
monthly for his milk? How much per head? 

4. A farmer has a herd of 20 cows. The milk for 
the week weighs as follows : 420 lbs., 418 lbs., 408 
lbs., 422 lbs., 417 lbs., 432 lbs. and 423 lbs., respectively. 
It tests 5 per cent of butter fat, the price of which is 
$0.30 per pound. How much do the cows average per 
head in money for this week? 

5. A farmer hauls 43,250 lbs. of milk that tests 
3.8 per cent to a factory. The price of butter fat is 
26 cents per pound. How much money should he 
receive ? 

5. A farmer owns six cows : Bess, Spot, Brindle, 
Bos, Kate and Red. 
Bess gives 22 lbs. of milk daily, which tests 3.8%, 
Spot gives 15 lbs. of milk daily, which tests 4-2%, 
Brindle gives 30 lbs. of milk daily, which tests 3.0%, 
Bos gives 20 lbs. of milk daily, which tests 3.5%, 



126 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

Kate gives 14 lbs. of milk daily, which tests 3.2%, 
Red gives 24 lbs. of milk daily, which tests 5.2.% 
Figure out the dairy value of each. Which is the 

best cow? The poorest one ? Classify them in order of 

dairy value. 

7. Figure out the number of pounds of milk given 
by each cow in a month, and the value of it in butter 
fat at 25c per pound. 

8. Two herds of ten cows each are compared: — 
The Jerseys average 18 lbs. of milk each daily ; the 
Holstein-Friesians average 30 lbs. of milk each daily. 
The Jerseys test 5.4 per cent; the Holstein-Friesians 
test 3.2 per cent. Which is the more valuable herd ? 

9. With butter fat at 30 cents per pound, what is 
the monthly average per cow, of each herd ? 

10. Pupils will furnish actual data from home for 
other dairy problems. 



CHAPTER XVII 
POULTRY 

There is no department of diversified farming 
that yields larger returns for the labor and money ex- 
pended than the poultry yard, if properly handled. 
No farmer tries to get along without chickens, and 
many farmers' wives and children are made happy 
by the revenue derived from a flock of turkeys, ducks, 
or geese. But poultry raising has not been given 
sufficient attention on many American farms. There 
is no more wholesome or nutritious article of food 
than eggs, and by most people poultry is highly es- 
teemed as an article of diet. There is a steady demand 
for fresh eggs, and well-fattened young fowls always 
bring a high price in the market. On many farms 
the money received from the sale of eggs and poultry 
amounts to several hundred dollars annually. 

The labor involved in this industry is of a kind 
that can easily be done by women and children. The 
feed required is raised on every farm, and the neces- 



128 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

sary buildings arc cheap and easily built. All these 
factors tend to make poultry raising very profitable 
when thoughtfully and intelligently pursued. 

If necessary, chickens may be confined to some- 
what narrow limits, but ducks, geese, and turkeys 
usually thrive best when given free range of the farm. 
The reason for this is plain. Fowls are insect and 
seed eaters, and, when allowed to roam, select the kinds 
of insects and seeds which they like best. But, when 
kept in confinement, man forces them to eat the things 
he provides ; and, unless a special study has been 
made of poultry foods, they may not always be the 
ones the fowls themselves would select. Again, as 
has been said in another chapter, if hens are to lay 
eggs, they must be fed egg-producing foods. If con- 
fined they should have constant access to a box of 
grits, oyster shells, gravel, lime, charcoal, sand, 
ground bone, and the like, to be used in grinding their 
food, and out of which to make egg-shells. They 
should be fed meat scraps, skim-milk, barley, refuse 
from the table, and other foods rich in protein out of 
which to make eggs. In winter time, green foods like 
cabbage, turnips, and silage should be given to them. 

To repeat what has been said in another place: 
"Nature has provided in summer proper foods for 
most farm animals, and the nearer summer conditions 
can be duplicated the greater will be the farmer's sue- 



POULTRY 129 

cess." The winter food of chickens should, therefore, 
consist of four kinds: Minerals, which they get by 
scratching in summer; meat, to take the place of sum- 
mer insects; grains; and green foods. Ungrateful, 
indeed, would be the hen who did not respond to this 
diet with a liberal return of eggs. 

One other fact in connection with the food of fowls 
is deserving of special emphasis here. Since their food 
consists so largely of seeds and insects, it is quite 
evident that they are worth all it costs to keep them 
in the assistance which they give to the farmer in de- 
vouring seeds of weeds and in holding insect pests 
in check. 

Like other farm animals, fowls must be protected 
from cold and storms. Their houses should be large 
light, airy, clean, and dry. Chickens should have a 
"scratching place" where they can get to dry dirt and 
scratch and wallow in it. Dust acts as a sort of insect 
powder filling up the insect's breathing pores, and 
thus keeps the chickens free from lice. It is impor- 
tant that chickens have plenty of exercise, and this 
they can get in winter if they have a warm and dry 
place where they can go to scratch. It is a common 
practice among poultry raisers to force them to 
scratch for their food by strewing it over a floor 
thickly covered with chaff or short straw. 

Poultry houses should be frequently cleaned and 
whitewashed to keep them free from bad odors and 



130 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



vermin. They should be well lighted by a row of 
windows, placed along the south side, and they should 
be built sufficiently warm to prevent the freezing of 
the chickens' combs and feet. Above all else, they 
sliould be kept perfectly dry to avoid disease. 




GOOD MATERIAL FOR A PRODUCE ACCOUNT. 

In the wild state, the hen laid but one setting of a 
dozen or fifteen eggs a year. This number has been 
greatly increased by domestication until the ''two 
hundred egg a year" hen is considered an easy possi- 
bility by many poultry raisers. If farmers will use care 



POULTRY 131 

in selecting only the eggs from the most prolific layers 
for setting, they can, without doubt, greatly improve 
the laying qualities of their flock. Much, however, 
depends upon the selection of a breed. 

The variety selected for farm use will depend 
largely upon the purpose for which the fowls are 
grown. There are some varieties especially desir- 
able for their laying qualities, others are adapted to 
the needs of the early spring chicken market, and 
still others which may be called general purpose 
fowls. The intelligent farmer informs himself as to 
the respective merits of the several breeds and selects 
the one best adapted to his needs. What is true in 
the selection of a variety of chickens is equally true 
of turkeys, ducks, and geese and is left to the intelli- 
gent action of the farmer without further comment 
here. The bulletins named below will be of great 
value to the poultry raiser in making his selection 
and will give him other assistance and direction in the 
care and management of his poultry. 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 51 — Standard Varieties of Chickens. 

No. 64 — Ducks and Geese, Breeds, and Management. 

No. 141 — Poultry Raising on the Farm. 

No. 177 — Squab Raising. 

No. 200 — Turkeys, Varieties, and Management. 



132 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

Problems. 

1. A flock of 60 hens average 80 eggs a year each. 
With eggs worth 15 cents per doz. what is the value 
of these eggs? 

2. How many bushels of corn will this buy at 
$.40 per bu? Of oats at $.25? 

3. Suppose it takes only 12 bu. of corn, 5 bu. of 
oats, and $7 worth of other food to keep this flock 
for one year, besides what they pick up for themselves, 
what is the profit over and above the cost of the feed ? 

4. What would have been the profit if they had 
laid 120 eggs each, instead of 80? 

5. Ask pupils to furnish data for at least twenty 

other similar problems. 



CHAPTER XVIIl 



SPECIAL CROPS 



There are a few special crops, which, because of 
their increasing importance in agricuUure, demand our 
attention. Four of these will be considered in this 
chapter: — Tobacco, sugar beets, potatoes and onions. 
All of these crops are grown in the United States, 
today, but, with the exception of potatoes, not in suffi- 
cient quantities to supply the demand. Until we do 
raise enough for home consumption, these crops will 
yield larger returns to the farmer than the other crops 
grown on the farm. 

Tobacco. 

As we have already learned, tobacco is a heavy 
feeder and hard on the soil. With every crop of 
tobacco sold off the farm about twice as much fertility 
is removed as with any grain crop that the farmer 
raises for market. But we have agreed that grain 
farming does not pay. How much more unprofitable, 
then, is it for the farmer to raise tobacco extensively. 



134 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



There is but one way in which he can keep up the 
fertihty of his soil, and that is by the use of commercial 
fertilizers. In this way soil matter is bought and 
brought back to the farm to take the place of that sold 
with the tobacco. Extensive experiments have been 
made at the different agricultural stations to deter- 




A TYPICAL TOBACCO FIELD. 

(Oconto County, Wisconsin) 

mine the kind and amount of these fertilizers to use. 
The results show that they are even better than barn- 
yard manure for this crop. The only way that the 



SPECIAL CROPS 135 

farmer can find out the kind and amount best adapted 
to his soil, is by careful experiment. It must be remem- 
bered, however, that commercial fertilizers tend to 
harden the soil, while barnyard manure improves its 
texture. 

Tobacco requires fertile, well-drained soil, rich 
in humus. Not every soil will grow good tobacco. 
Even on the same farm, places are found which seem 
to be especially adapted to its growth. Herein, an- 
other danger lies. The farmer is likely to grow to- 
bacco, year after year, on this same piece of land until 
its fertility is exhausted, or else he has robbed the 
rest of his farm by putting all of his fertilizers on his 
tobacco land. Again, such conditions make crop ro- 
tation impracticable. 

Moreover, tobacco requires thorough cultivation 
and careful attention in harvesting and curing. These 
things are best learned by actual practice, and a dis- 
cussion of them is beyond the province of this book. 

Sugar Beets. 

Beets, like tobacco, are heavy feeders, and, like to- 
bacco, require thorough cultivation. Unlike tobacco, 
however, they can be grown so as to retain the fer- 
tility of the soil. Sugar is a carbohydrate, and car- 
bohydrates, you will remember, are made by the plant 
from the air and the water which the plant uses. If 



1.36 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

the beets arc shipped to the factory, the siij^^ar ex- 
tracted there, and the pulp returned to be fed on tlic 
farm or used as a fertiHzer, the soil has lost 
nothing. It is much the same as if the tobacco ashes 
were brought back to the farm. With tobacco, how- 
ever, this is impossible, but with beets it is possible 
to return the pulp and this should always be done. 

Sugar beets have still other advantages over tobacco. 
In the first place, the price is fixed by the factory be- 
fore the beets are planted. The factory usually con- 
tracts to give about four and one-half dollars per ton 
for beets that test fourteen per cent, of sugar, with 
an additional twenty-five cents per ton for each addi- 
tional one per cent, of sugar. Thus beets testing 
fifteen per cent, will bring four dollars and seventy- 
five cents per ton, and beets testing sixteen per cent, 
will bring five dollars per ton. They will usually 
agree to ship the pulp back to the farmer at a small 
cost, say twenty-five cents per ton. The farmer knows 
just what price he is going to get for his crop. What 
his land brings him per acre depends upon his own 
efforts, and he will then bend all his energies toward 
])ro(lucing a high test, and a big yield. With other 
crops a big general yield usually means a low price, 
but a big crop of beets does not affect the price. 

Again, beets require less care than tobacco. They 
do not need to be housed or cured. No capital need 



SPECIAL CROPS 



137 



be invested In sheds or curing rooms. 

In the third place, they can be grown successfully 
on a large variety of soils, and they furnish, when 
the pulp is returned to the farm, an excellent food for 
stock. 

In the fourth place, their long roots, and the deep 
cultivation required, bring to the surface fertility from 
deep down in the soil. In Germany, several years 
after their cultivation was introduced, more grain was 




HARVESTING SUGAR BEETS. 

grown per acre on land where the beets had been 
cultivated than could possibly be grown before their 
cultivation was begun. 

A comparison of beets and tobacco gives the pre- 
ference to beets as a farm crop. They grow well on 
tobacco land and are an excellent crop to be used in 



138 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

rotation with it. Their cultivation is easily learned, 
and they are less exposed to injury from storms, in- 
sects and plant diseases. 

Potatoes. 

Potatoes of the best quality are grown on light 
sandy land, rich in humus. Heavy clay soils do not 
give way readily as the potatoes increase in size, 
hence will produce smaller potatoes. 

This crop yields heavily, five hundred bushels per 
acre being not unusual. Potatoes sh6uld be planted 
about four inches deep, in rows three feet apart, and 
about two feet apart in the row. Extensive experi- 
ments, carried on by the different agricultural stations, 
show that the seed potatoes should be cut in halves or 
quarters. When the price of seed potatoes is very 
high, they may be cut in smaller pieces of as nearly 
equal size as possible. No bad results have come from 
planting small potatoes, though one would naturally 
think that small potatoes, used as seed, would give 
small potatoes in return. It must be remembered, how- 
ever, that the potato is not a seed, but an underground 
stem, and that it does not bear the same relation to 
the crop that the seed does. Like the seed, it serves 
as a storehouse for the growing plant, and if the 



SPECIAL CROPS 139 

pieces are of sufficient size to furnish this food mat- 
ter, the next crop will not be affected by the size of 
the potato planted. 

To prevent rot or blight, the seed should be rolled 
in sulphur, the vines sprayed with Bordeaux mixture 
as soon as blight appears, and rotation of crops prac- 
ticed. In no case should potatoes be planted on the 
same ground where the previous crop has been af- 
fected, as the spores are in the soil and will surely at- 
tack them. 

Onions. 

Not enough onions are grown in the United States 
to supply the demand. Millions of bushels are an- 
nually imported. They yield heavily, sometimes as 
much as a thousand bushels per acre, and they are 
not hard to grow. The greatest cost of their cultiva- 
tion is labor, but of a kind that a child can easily do. 
Onion raising offers to the children on the farm a 
splendid opportunity to make their spending money, 
and for that reason it is discussed here. One-fourth 
of an acre set to onions should yield one hundred 
bushels, which, if the market is good, will bring them 
from fifty to seventy-five dollars. Hard, indeed, would 
be the farmer who would not give to his children 
so small a patch of ground on which to grow onions, 
and time enough to cultivate them. 



140 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



Onions, like tobacco, require a fertile soil, rich in 
hiimiis, but they need considerably more moisture. 
In the northern states the seed should be sown in boxes 
in early spring, and the young plants transplanted 




ONION GROWING FOR PROFIT. 
Courtesy of Country Calendar. 



as soon as the ground is in fit condition. There are 
several reasons for this : In the first place, onions 
grow very slowly, and, if sown in the ground, the 
weeds become too large and thick before the young 
onions are large enough to cultivate. In the next 
place, they can be transplanted the right distance 



SPECIAL CROPS 141 

apart and do not rob each other of plant food, as they 
would before thinning, if sown in the row. In the 
third place, onions require a large amount of mois- 
ture, and if started in the house or hot-bed, the plants 
may be set out in time to get all the benefit of the 
spring rains. It has been shown that transplanting 
will double the yield. 

They should be set in rows from a foot to eighteen 
inches apart, and the plants should be placed about 
four inches apart in the row. The soil should be 
heavily fertilized, and very thoroughly prepared. All 
lumps should be broken and the surface made smooth. 
The rows may be laid off by stretching a line across 
the plat. The plat may be marked out along the string 
by rolling a wooden wheel (an old wagon wheel 
with the tire removed will answer), on whose edge 
wooden pegs about three inches long and four inches 
apart have been set. The plants should be placed in 
the holes made by the pegs and the soil pressed firmly 
around their roots. 

The cultivation can be done with a steady horse, 
if the rows are far enough apart, with a hand culti- 
vator or with a hoe. Success depends upon cultiva- 
tion. The soil should be frequently stirred, and it 
mVist be kept absolutely free from weeds. 

When the tops are dead and dry the crop is ready 



142 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

for harvest. The onions should be pulled, carefully 
cleaned, dried in the sun for a few hours and stored 
away in a cool, dry place until ready for market. If 
they are placed in bushel boxes with lath sides they 
will keep in good condition. 

Yellow Danvers, Early Reds, Red Wethersfields, 
Yellow > Globe and Prizetakers are the standard varie- 
ties. The first named is the heaviest yielder, an onion 
of excellent flavor and sells well on the market. 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

1/ Farmers' Bulletins. 

No. 35.— Potato Culture. 

No. 39. — Onion Culture. 

No. 52.— The Sugar Beet. 

No. 60. — Methods of- Curing Tobacco. 

No. 82.— The Culture of Tobacco. 

No. 83.— Tobacco Soils. 

No. 120. — The Principal Insect Affecting the Tobacco 
Plant. 

No. 129.— Sweet Potatoes. 



SPECIAL CROPS 143 

Problems. 

1. How many tobacco plants will be required to 
set an acre in rows three feet apart, the plants two 
feet apart in the row ? 

2. Tobacco is usually strung on laths to be cured. 
With twenty stalks to the lath, how many laths will be 
needed per acre? 

3. If the stalks need four feet of vertical space and 
the laths are hung one foot apart in the shed, how 
many cubic feet of shed room will be required to 
house an acre of tobacco? 

4. Give dimensions of a shed for five acres of to- 
bacco. 

5. If the average weight of seed potatoes is four 
ounces each, and if they are cut in halves and planted 
in rows three feet apart and eighteen inches apart 
in the row, how many bushels of seed will be required 
per acre? 

6. How many bushels will be needed if whole po- 
tatoes are used ? Quarters ? Eighths ? 

7. A sugar factory agrees to pay $4.50 per ton for 
all beets testing 14 per cent, or less, of sugar. They 
also agree to give an additional 25c per ton for each 
additional i per cent of sugar or fraction thereof over 
14 per cent, if the fraction exceeds I/2 per cent. What 



144 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

is the price of beets testing 13.7 per cent? 14 per cent? 
14.3 per cent? 14.7 per cent? 15 per cent? 15.2 per 
cent? 15.6 per cent? 15,8 per cent? 

8. Mr. Smith's beets yield fourteen tons per acre 
and test 15 per cent. How much does he get per 
acre for his crop? 

9. On two acres of ground Mr. Jones raises 73,- 
680 pounds of beets which test 14.8 per cent. How 
much do his beets bring him in money per acre? 

10. If Mr. Jones spends $56 worth of labor on his 
crop of beets, what is his net profit per acre? 

11. How many onion plants will be required to set 
an acre in rows one foot apart, plants four inches 
apart in the row? 

12. If a boy can set four plants per minute, how 
long will it take him to set them? 

13. If these onions average four ounces each, how 
many bushels are raised on an acre? If they average 
six ounces? twelve ounces? one pound? 

14. What is the value of the crop in each case, at 
60c per bushel? 

15. If it requires fifty days of a boy's time, worth 
75c per day, to raise an acre of onions, what will be 
his profit on an acre of four ounce onions? 

16. Pupils will furnish data for other similar prob- 
lems. 



CHAPTER XIX 



FARM BUILDINGS 



That good, substantial buildings are needed on ev- 
ery farm goes without saying. The number and kind, 
of course, vary with the size and location of the farm, 
and the special crops raised thereon. But a good 
house, barn, granary, silo, carriage and tool house 
are almost indispensable on every farm. 

Usually too little attention is given to the arrange- 
ment of these buildings, and, when they once have 
been placed, it is next to impossible to correct the 
bad effect of poor arrangement. The barn in front 
of the house, or on the windward side of it, the hog 
house in front of the house, the barnyard between 
the house and the barn, the carriage house opening 
into the barnyard, and the vegetable garden in the 
dooryard, are some of the common mistakes. 

The position of the house should receive first at- 
tention. It should be placed on an elevation suffi- 
cient to afford good drainage, four or five rods 



146 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



back from the road, leaving room for a nice lawn in 
front. The barn should be placed at one side and 



BAHHYAUD « 




FARM 



f.Vi v^m!^jiiMiSm.i 



lu mjij i JiMi i i ii miinumjy|;jiJ T»iii/ 



BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS NEATLY 
CONVENIENTLY ARRANGED. 



AND 



farther back from the road. If possible, it should be 
so located that the prevailing wind will carry the 



FARM BUILDINGS 147 

barn odors away from the house. The barnyard 
should be in the rear of the barn so that the view 
from the house will be unobstructed by high board 
fences, stables or sheds. A drive should lead from 
the road to the barn, and the horse stable and car- 
riage house should open onto this drive, so that the 
farmer and his sons will not be compelled to pass 
through the barnyard every time they hitch up a 
team. A walk of cinders, gravel or sand should lead 
from the house to the barn. Such a walk is cheap, 
easily built, and will always be clean and compara- 
tively dry. The vegetable garden can be placed any- 
where in the rear, near the house, where it will be 
convenient. The logical place for the well is between 
the barn and the house, where it can be used for both 
places, but not too near the barn. The silo should 
be attached to, or near the barn, and, of course, the 
granary should be near by. Tool houses, tobacco 
sheds and all other outbuildings should be kept well 
back from the road, so as not to obstruct the view 
from the house. 

But little need be said about the construction of 
farm buildings. The careful farmer will adapt the 
buildings to the size of the farm, and his own special 
needs. The silo is the one farm building, however, 
that needs the most careful construction. The im- 
portance of silage as a feeding stuff is growing more 



148 



EtKMKNTARY AGRICULTURE 



apparent, but silage will not keep well in a poorly 
constructed silo. Whatever the type of silo the farm- 
er chooses to build, four things must be observed : 
It must be air-tight, strong, perfectly smooth on the 
inside and placed on a strong, solid foundation. 




FILLING THE SILO. 

The silo must be air tight, because the air contains 
germs that will set to work upon the silage and cause 
it to spoil and decay. Silage is something like 
canned fruit, in this respect. The silo must be 
strong, because the green feed with which it is filled 



FARM BUILDINGS 



140 



is very heavy and solidly packed down. This exerts 
a tremendous side pressure which will spring or burst 
the walls of a poorly constructed silo and admit air, 




SILO. VERTICAL SECTION. 

General plan for wood, brick, stone or cement silo. V — 
Ventilator, D — Doors, S — Air spaces, F — Stone foundation, 
C — Cement floor. 

When the silo is attached to the barn, the feeding- and 
filling doors are usually placed on opposite sides, the feed- 
ing- doors opening into the barn. 

causing the silage to spoil. It must be perfectly 
smooth on the inside, because silage should settle 
evenly. Projections, or rough places on the inner 



150 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

walls of a silo, will prevent this even settling, cause 
dead air spaces, which spoil the silage. It must rest 
on a strong, solid foundation, because the side pres- 
sure and weight at the bottom are very great. This 
pressure may burst a heavy stone wall — and the great 
weight will cause a silo, placed on a poor foundation, 
to settle out of shape and crack the walls. 

If this building is so constructed as to provide for 
sufficient ventilation and to prevent freezing, and 
proper care is used in filling the silo, silage is a very 
satisfactory feed to use on the farm. 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

No. 32. — Silos and Silage. 

No. 136. — Practical Suggestions for Farm Buildings. 

Measurements. 
Rules. 

1. To find the area of a triangle multiply the base by 
one-half the height. 

2. To find the circumference of a circle multiply the 
diameter by 3 1-7. 

3. To find the area of a circle multiply the square of 
the radius by 3 1-7. 

4. The square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle 
is equal to the sum of the squares of the other sides. 

Note. Make a drawing before attempting to solve any 
of the following problems. 



FARM BUILDINGS 151 



Problems. 

1. How many feet of inch lumber will be required 
to build a pig pen eight feet wide, six feet from peak 
to ground, and eight feet long? (See rules i and 4.) 

2. How many feet of inch lumber will be needed 
to board up the gables of a barn thirty feet wide, 
the peaks being twelve feet above the eaves? 

3. How much lumber will it take to cover a corn 
crib with four inch slats, placed one inch apart, the 
crib being twenty-four feet, long, six feet wide at the 
bottom, eight feet at the top, eight feet to the eaves, 
and the peak three feet above the eaves? 

4. How long will the rafters need to be for this 
crib if they are to project one foot? How many feet 
of 2x4 rafters will be required if they are placed two 
feet apart? 

5. How many feet of 2x4 studding will be needed 
if they are placed the same distance apart? How 
many feet of roof boards will be required if they are 
allowed to project one foot at each end? 

6. How many cubic feet must a bin contain in or- 
der to hold a thousand bushels? Make a Hst of con- 
venient dimensions for such a bin. 



152 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

7. How many feet of two-inch plank will be re- 
quired to build a cylindrical tank fourteen feet across 
and two feet deep? What will be the cost of the 
lumber at $30 per thousand? 

8. How many feet of band iron will it require to 
make three hoops for this tank? 

9. How many feet of inch lumber will be required 
to cover the inner wall of a "round" silo twenty-one 
feet across and eighteen feet high? How many 
feet of two-inch plank will be needed for a cover? 
What will be the cost of all this lumber at $25 per 
thousand ? 

10. What will it cost to put a cement floor in this 
silo at 10 cents per square foot? 

11. How many 2x4 studdings eighteen feet long 
and placed one foot apart will be required, and 
what will be their cost at $24 per thousand ? 

12. What will it cost for the lumber to floor a barn 
forty by sixty feet with two and one-half inch plank 
at $18 per thousand? 

13. The peak of this barn is twelve feet higher 
than the eaves. What will inch lumber for sheeting 
the ends cost at $24 per thousand ? 

14. The rafters are made of 2x4, and twenty-seven 
feet long, placed eighteen inches apart. How much 
will they cost at $20 per thousand? 



FARM BUILDINGS 153 

15. What will be the cost of the sheeting for the 
roof at $16 per thousand if the roof projects two 
feet at each end? 

17. What will it cost to shingle this roof with 
shingles worth $3.25 per thousand, laying them five 
inches to the weather and allowing for a double 
course at the eaves? 

18. This building is placed on a wall twelve inches 
thick and eight feet high. What is the cost of the 
stone for same at $5 per cord? 

19. What will it cost to fence a field sixty rods 
long and forty-five rods wide with a five wire fence, 
posts one rod apart, worth 5 cents each, staples 6 
cents per pound (200 to the pound), wire weighing 
one pound to the rod, worth $4.50 per cwt., and labor 
amounting to $6? 

20. What will it cost to build a five board fence 
around the same field, using twelve-foot boards, six 
inches wide, and worth $16 per thousand, posts 5 
cents each, nails and labor, $15? 

21. Pupils make and solve similar problems from 
data taken from actual conditions. 



CHAPTER XX 



FARM ACCOUNTS 



There are times when every farmer needs to keep 
accounts. Sometimes it is desirable to know just 
how much cash is received and paid out during the 
year. A simple cash account will show this. All 
kinds of accounts require two columns. These col- 
umns may be placed side by side at the right of the 
page, or the page may be divided with double ruling 
down its center, or two separate pages, facing each 
other, may be used. Whichever kind of ruling is 
used, the accounts are all kept in exactly the same 
way. The divided page method is used in this book. 

CASH ACCOUNTS. 

In keeping a cash account the word cash is first 
written across the top of the page. All cash received 
is placed in the cash space in the left hand side, and 
all cash paid out is placed in the cash space in the right 
hand side. At the extreme left of each side the date 
is placed, and between the date and the cash space 



FARM ACCOUNTS 



155 



the item, for which cash has been received or paid, is 
written. The total amount of cash received, or paid 
out, is easily found by adding the amounts on each 
side, and the difference of these two sums represents 
the cash on hand. Cash on hand should be carried 
over into the received side at the top of the next page, 
when any page is filled up with entries. If it is de- 
sired, the TOTALS may be carried over into their re- 
spective columns instead, and the new page kept in 
exactly the same way as the preceding one. This is 
all there is in keeping a cash account. It is a very 
simple and easy thing to do. For example: 

CASH. 



Date 1905 


Item 


Rec'd 


Date 1995 


Item 


Paid 


Jm. 


1 


Cash on hand 


$24 


40 


Jan. 


2 


Groceries.. . 


$3 


00 


Jan. 


3 


For hogs 


:02 


75 


Jan. 


,5 


For coal 


14 


40 


Jan 


30 


For butter. .. 


42 H4 


Jan. 


17 


For books . ... 


5 


00 


Feb. 


1 


For eggs 


' 


25 


Jan 


20 


For overcoat. . . 


12 


00 












Feb 


' 


For rubbers. ... 




75 



Study the above illustration, determine how much 
cash is on hand Feb. i, 1905, and on a blank sheet of 



156 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



paper, open up a new page in both ways as described 
above. Submit your work to your teacher to find out 
whether you are correct. 

pe:rsonal accounts. 
A personal account is kept in exactly the same 
way as a cash account. The name of the person i's 
first written across the top of the page. Whenever 
this person receives anything from the one keeping 
the account, this entry is made in the left hand side 
under the word debtor, and whenever he pays any- 
thing on this account, this entry is made in the right 
hand side under the word creditor, exactly the same 
as with a cash account. The dates and items are 
written in their proper places, which are the same as 
those for cash accounts. For example: 









JOHN SMITH. 










Date 1905 Item 


Dr. 


Date 1905 


Item 


Cr. 


Sept. 


22 


Tol pig 


... 


50 


Oct. 


3 


By 3 days' wrk 


$4 


50 






1 




Oct. 


10 


By cash 


2 


00 












Oct. 


25 


By 1 clay's wrk 1 


50 





















Suppose that on Sept. 22, 1905, you sell a pig to 
John Smith for $12.50, for which he agrees to pay 
either in money or in labor at $1.50 per day. He 



FARM ACCOUNTS. 



157 



works on Oct. i, 2 and 3. On Oct. 10 he pays $2.00 
in cash, and on Oct. 25 he works another day. The 
account is kept in this manner. 

This account shows, in a brief manner, a complete 
history of this transaction. It gives all dates, which 
are of great importance in all accounts. It shows that 
John Smith owes you $12.50 for a pig, that he has 
already paid you $8.00 in labor and cash, and that 
he still owes you $4.50. When this is paid, it should 
be entered under the other items in the credit column, 
both columns added and the account closed by draw- 
ing two lines across the page. below the account, like 
this: 

JOHN SMITH. 



Date 1905 


Item 


Dr. 


Date 1905 


Item 


Or. 


Sept. 


22 


To 1 pig ... . 


$12 


50 


Oct. 


3 


By 3 days' wrk 


U 


50 












Oct. 


10 


By cash. ... 


2 


00 












Oct. 


25 


By 1 day's wrk 


1 


50 










Oct. 


30 


By bal. cash . . 


4 


50 






|12 


50 








|ia 


50 



PRODUCE ACCOUNTS. 

Sometimes the farmer wishes to know his profits 
on his cows, tobacco, beets or other things produced 



158 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



on the farm. It often happens that his wife wants 
to keep account of her profits on berries or poultry. 
Such an account is called a produce: account, and it 
is kept exactly like a personal account. Suppose that 
you want to keep an account of your chickens. The 
word chicke;ns is first written across the top of the 
page. Whenever the chickens receive anything from 
you like feed or coops, this entry is made in the left 
hand column under the word debtor. Whenever they 
pay you anything in the form of eggs or young chick- 
ens, this entry is made in the right hand column un- 
der the word creditor. Study the following account: 



CHICKENS 



Date 1905 


Item 


Dr. 


Date 1905 Item 


Cr. 


May 


1 


To lumber for coops . 


$3 


20 


May 


30 


By eggs for mo 


m 


50 


June 


2 


To Feed 




75 


June 


30 


By eggs for mo 


1 


80 


June 


30 


To corn meal . 


2 


40 


July 


30 By eggs for mo 

1 


2 1 10 


Aug. 


1 


To corn. ... 


3 


00 


Oct. 


1 


By young chickens ... 


6 


00 












Oct. 


1 


By yourg chickens eat'n 


3 


00 


Oct. 


1 


Profit 


10 


05 


Oct. 


I 


By eggs eaten. 


4 


00 








$19 


40 








$19 


40 



FARM ACCOUNTS 159 

The above account shows that these chickens re- 
ceived from you a total of $9.35 in coops and feed, 
and that they paid you in eggs and young chickens, 
which you sold, and in other eggs and chickens, 
which you ate during the summer, a total of 
$19.40, giving you a profit of $10.05 on the invest- 
ment. 

If farmers would form the habit of keeping ac- 
counts of their stock and their crops, much unprofita- 
ble farming might be avoided, as attention would 
thus be directed to those products which, on the aver- 
age, yield the largest returns for the labor and money 
expended. 

Problems. 

I. A farmer's boy hires out to a neighbor for five 
months at $22 per month. He begins work April i, 
with $7.35 cash on hand. He receives his pay at 
the end of every month. April 2, he pays $2.75 for 
shoes. April 20, 25c for a straw hat. May 3, he 
spend $1.25 for a coat. May 31, he buys a colt for 
$42. July I, he pays $14.75 ^01* more clothing. July 
4, he spends $2.35. July 20, he sells his colt for $55. 
August 15, he pays $6.50 for a watch, and, during 
the summer he spends $4.85 for sundry small ar- 
ticles. 

Write out his account and determine how much 



160 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

cash he has on hand when his time is out. 

2. Two boys rent for four dollars a half acre of 
land on which to plant onions. They allow them- 
selves 75c each per day for their time. It costs them 
$2 to get this piece of land fertilized and plowed. 
They each spend ten days' time planting and culti- 
vating their onions, and four days more each when 
harvesting time comes. They sell $14.30 worth of 
green onions, and harvest 142 bushels more. For 
100 bushels they get 75c per bushel, and 60c per 
bushel for the remainder. 

Write out their onion account, and find their 
profit. 

3. A farmer runs an account with George White, 
a merchant. July 7, he buys a pair of shoes for 
$2.40 and has them charged on account. July 20, 
he takes in twelve dozen of eggs at 1 1 cents per dozen 
and gets 50c worth of sugar. August 3, he takes in 
twelve pounds of butter at 20 cents per pound and 
gets nine yards of calico at 6 cents per yard, one 
pound of tea at 50 cents, four pounds of coffee at 
18 cents per pound, and a barrel of salt at $1.25. 
August 14, he gets a pail of fish at 75 cents and 100 
pounds sugar at 5I/2 cents per pound, and pays $2.00 
in cash. How does his account stand on August 15? 

Write out this account with Gi:o. White. 



CHAPTER XXI 



FORESTRY 



Next to the soil itself, no other part of the earth, 
or its furnishing, is of such importance to man as 
the forest. Indeed, without the forest, past and pres- 
ent, there would hardly be any tillable soil. But, it 
is also our chief source of building material and of 
fuel. It is, moreover, the great garment of the earth, 
protecting and adorning it. 

The forest is much more than a collection of inde- 
pendent trees; it is a great organism, composed of 
many parts, or elements, each dependent on the oth- 
ers. It has a very complex and varied life, com- 
prising not only trees and shrubs, but also herbs, 
flowers, mosses, lichens, birds, insects, and higher 
animals in great variety, all dependent for their very 
life upon their combination and mutual service, in 
the great living thing we call the forest. 

The forest exercises a great influence upon the 
earth and its inhabitants outside of the forest limits. 



162 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



It is often the source of streams, and controls the 
water supply of surrounding regions. It breaks the 
force of winds and tempers the climate. It supplies 
vegetable mold which is an indispensable element in 
fertile soil. And it affords recreation, and the high- 
est forms of enjoyment to those who can get access 
to it. In short, the forest is one of man's greatest 
blessings, and yet it is the one which he has abused 




THE EDGE OF THE FOREST. 

with most recklessness and ignorance. And, in no 
part of the world has this reckless waste been greater 
than in the United States, and especially in the North 
Central states. 

The forest was intended for use, but it was meant 



FORESTRY 163 

to serve man for ages, and not to be destroyed in 
the life time of a man. The great causes which have 
wrecked the forests, and wiped them from the earth 
to so great an extent, are (i) unwise and unregu- 
lated cutting by lumbermen, and (2) the prevalence 
of forest fires. These fires, springing up in seasons 
of drouth, are fed and made destructive by the brush 
and dead tree tops, left as wreckage on the ground, 
wherever logging has been carried on. The fires are 
often started by the criminal negligence of hunters 
and campers in not putting out all remains of their 
camp-fires, or in other careless ways. Some of these 
fires have done immense damage to the standing for- 
est, and have caused great distress and loss of human 
life. Among the most famous of these, are the great 
Peshtigo fire of 1871, in Northeastern Wisconsin, 
and the Hinckley fire of 1894, in Minnesota. 

The science and art of forestry has for its purpose 
the perpetuation and, at the same time, the econom- 
ical utilization of the forest. It teaches men how to 
keep the forest alive by cutting out only the trees that 
have got their growth and are ripe, in such a way as 
not to injure or endanger the remaining growth. 
The younger trees are thus given more light 
and air and room to grow, while the under- 
growth is also preserved. The "forest floor" of de- 
caying leaves, rotten wood, and other debris is pre- 



164 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

served as a means of enricliing the soil and, espe- 
cially, of retaining;- moisture and preventing the rains 
from running off too quickly in surface wash and 
floods. Forestry also teaches the best ways of re- 
planting, or "re-foresting," areas in which the timber 
has already been wastefully destroyed. This art of 
prudently managing timber lands, so as to keep up 
their blessings to their owners and others, has long 
been practiced in European countries, particularly in 
Germany, and has proved of the greatest advantage. 
The people of the United States are just waking up 
to the necessity of such a course, and the United 
States Department of Forestry is now doing excel- 
lent service in educating the people to greater intelli- 
gence and foresight in the management of such rem- 
nants of our once magnificent forests as yet remain ; 
though we are reminded of the old saying about 
locking the stable door after the horse is stolen. The 
new policy of our government in setting off Forest 
Reserves in the unsold lands of the Western States, 
particularly in the mountain regions, deserves the 
earnest approval and support of all citizens interested 
in the future welfare of our country. Lumbermen, 
generally, have blindly followed the example of the 
woman who killed the goose that laid the golden 
eggs ; and the future good of our land ought not to 
be left longer at their mercy. 



FORESTRY IC"* 

But we need not look upon forestry as a matter 
which concerns only the far off forests of the North 
and West. Every farmer who has a "wood lot" left 
ought to understand its principles and apply them 
to his own possessions. 

The importance of caring for the farm wood lot 
cannot be too strongly emphasized. When our coun- 
try was new and land had to be cleared to make room 
for the crops, farmers cared little for timber and less 
for wood. Great trees were cut down and rolled 
into the log heap. Good material for lumber went 
up in smoke, and in those days no one ever thought 
of saving wood. But now all is changed. In many 
places the price of wood is exceedingly high. Good 
lumber is every year becoming harder to get. We 
have awakened to the fact that the farmer who has 
a wood lot on his farm has a valuable piece of prop- 
erty. 

A few acres of wood land, if properly managed, 
will furnish wood and other timber to the farmer for 
years to come. Now, what constitutes proper man- 
agement of the wood lot? 

First, desirable young trees should be kept growing. 
Undesirable ones should be cut out and used for fuel 
or other purposes. 

Second, it is not, as a rule, a good plan to pasture 



IGG 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 




A GROVE IN NEED OF IMPROVEMENT CUTTING. 
(Pinchot's Primer of Forestry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 



FORESTRY. 



167 




THE SAME AFTER AN IMPROVEMENT CUTTING. 
(Pinchot's Primer of Forestry.) 



168 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

the wood lot. Animals injure and destroy young 
trees by browsing upon them and gnawing their bark. 
Again, their sharp hoofs injure the roots, and their 
continuous tramping hardens the soil. 

Third, if grass is allowed to get into the wood lot 
it starves out the young seedlings or, at least, checks 
their growth. This is another good reason why the 
wood lot should never be pastured or seeded to grass. 

Fourth, old trees and dead trees should be carefully 
removed, the saw-timber saved, the limbs cut into 
wood, and the brush piled up neatly. As a rule, it 
is not a good plan to burn the brush. Many young 
trees are killed in this way. 

Fifth, when bare spots appear in the wood lot, 
young trees should be encouraged to grow there, 
either by planting seeds or young trees. Seed- 
lings should be thinned so that they will not starve 
each other out, and only the most useful, thrifty, and 
hardy kinds should be planted. 

With a little care and attention on the part of the 
farmer, the wood lot may be preserved and the land 
devoted to it be made to yield as large returns as other 
acres of the farm which are more carefully cultivated. 

There are other good reasons why forests should 
be preserved in agricultural regions. The soil in the 
woods is very porous, and capable of absorbing large 
quantities of water, which runs off from cleared land 



FORESTRY 169 

and is wasted. This water is stored away as under- 
ground water. It feeds our wells and springs, and, 
moving upward, it increases the supply of capillary 
water in the soil, and thus becomes available for the 
use of plants. It is well known that forest regions 
are seldom, if ever, affected by drought. Then, too, 
forests furnish homes for game, which all farmer 
boys delight in hunting, and for birds which feed 
upon insects that would injure our crops, if they 
were not held in check by the birds. 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
Farmers' Bulletins. 

No. 54. — Some Common Birds in Their Relation to 
Agriculture. 

No. 150. — Clearing New Land. 
No. 173. — A Primer of Forestry. 

Problems. 

1. At $6.oo per cord, what is the value of a pile of 
wood 240 feet long, six feet high and four feet wide? 

2. A farmer gets six cords of wood from ten trees. 
With wood at $5.50 per cord, what is the value of 
these trees? 

3. What is the value of a, single tree at the same 
rate? 

4. Suppose there are fifty such trees on an acre, 
what is the value of the wood on this piece of land ? 



170 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

5. What is the value of a wood lot of fifteen acres 
at the same rate? 

6. Suppose a farmer removes the five biggest trees 
per acre from his v^ood lot, each year. If each tree 
makes % of a cord of w^ood, worth $6.00 per cord, 
and it cost 80c per cord for cutting, what profit does 
he make per acre on his wood lot? 

7. Compare this with his profit on an acre of oats. 

8. Compare it with his profit on an acre of corn. 

9. What will his profit on a twelve acre wood lot 
be at the same rate? 

10. Compare this with his profit on twelve acres of 
meadow. 

11. Pupils make and solve similar problems from 
data furnished by the teacher, themselves or their 
parents. 



CHAPTER XXII 

HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS 

Beautiful home surroundings exert an educational 
influence on the young, and add to the enjoyment of 
life for all. The proper provision of such surround- 
ings is, therefore, a matter of importance to all who 
have, or expect to have, homes in the country. The 
tasteful arrangement and proper planting of home 
and school grounds require much thought and study 
in order to insure satisfactory results. 

In all landscape gardening, two principles must be 
observed : 

First, care must be taken in the selection of what 
is to be planted. A bunch of flowers does not neces- 
sarily constitute a bouquet; intelligence must be em- 
ployed in their selection and arrangement. So in the 
planting of grounds wisdom must be exercised in the 
selection and distribution of plants, trees, and shrubs 
in order to produce a pleasing and durable result. 
Consideration should be given to the nature of the 



172 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

surface and soil; and the location of everything 
planted should harmonize with the lay of the land, 
concealing defects and emphasizing the attractive 
features. 

Second, the planting itself should be rightly done, 
so as to insure proper growth and permanence. Ar- 
bor Day has been celebrated by the planting of many 
thousands of trees throughout the Western States; 
but, in all probability, not ten per cent of these are 
alive and in healthy growth at the present time. The 
practice of planting trees and naming them after 
great men, as Grant, Dewey, and the like, is a com- 
mendable practice, if followed by proper care of 
the trees thus planted ; but quite otherwise, if the trees 
die and are consigned to the brush pile through neg- 
lect of our second principle. 

In order to apply these two principles successfully, 
it is necessary to make a study of the grounds and 
also of the characteristics of trees and plants; their 
hardiness, their mode of growth, and their adaptation 
to the soil and other conditions. There are probably 
not more than a dozen kinds of trees, and as many 
species of shrubs, that are adapted to planting in 
small grounds, under ordinary conditions, in this 
climate. The proper location of drives and walks 
should receive due consideration before planting be- 



HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS. 




1V4 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

gins. Care should be taken not to plant trees too 
close^ together, or else there should be a definite plan 
for thinning them out as they approach full size. We 
should try to picture, not the small tree that we plant 
but the tree that is to be. 

Small, thrifty trees should ordinarily be selected for 
planting, rather than large ones. They are more likely 
to live and will be larger and more satisfactory at the 
end of a few years. If large trees are planted, they 
should be ''headed in" unsparingly, and staked firmly. 
No tree, large or small, should be planted which is 
blemished or imperfect, or without a good equipment 
of roots. Perhaps the majority of trees are practi- 
cally ruined by the destruction of roots in the dig- 
ging- 

In preparation for planting, the holes should be 
dug at least four feet in diameter and two feet in 
depth. If the soil is hard and poor, it should be re- 
placed by good earth ; and in every case the trees 
should be well mulched with coarse litter that will 
remain in place. The work of planting cannot be 
done rightly by one person alone ; it requires two, one 
to handle the spade and one to handle the tree and 
adjust the soil properly around the roots, which 
should be spread out in their natural position. Do not 



HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS 175 

use water in planting unless the soil is dry, and even 
then it is not best to use a great amount. 

In handling the trees between digging and plant- 
ing, great care is necessary to prevent the fine, fibrous 
roots — which are the really important ones — ^from 
becoming dry through exposure to sun or wind. The 
cut ends of all large roots should be re-cut smoothly 
with a sharp knife immediately before planting. 

The following trees and shrubs have been planted 
on the grounds of a certain school, viz. : Arbor 
Vitse, Colorado Blue Spruce, Douglas Fir, Hemlock, 
Norway Spruce, Scotch Pine, Cut-leaved Birch, Nor- 
way Maple, Common Barberry, Thnnberg's Barberry, 
Dogwood, Golden Elder, Japanese Tree Lilac, Per- 
sian Lilac, Syringa, Rosa Rugosa, Russian Olive, 
Tartarian Honeysuckle, Spirea von Houttei, Snowball, 
Clematis, and Woodbine. 

Out of over i,ooo specimens planted, less than a 
dozen failed to live and thrive, since care was taken 
to follow the directions given above. 

Some varieties of trees and shrubs may be dug in 
the woods, in some localities ; but it is generally bet- 
ter, for school use, to get them right from the ground, 
from a reputable nurseryman, or from the gardens of 
people who are willing to contribute them. Some- 



176 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

times they can be procured without cost from State 
Experiment Stations. 

The planting of home grounds may, perhaps, be 
less elaborate than that of public grounds; but it 
needs no less care and attention to right methods. 
Such work "pays in the heart ;" and no work pays so 
well as that which tends toward happy, cheerful life. 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

Farmers* Bulletins. 

No. 134. — Tree Planting on Rural School Grounds.. 
No. 185. — Beautifying the Home Grounds. 
Extracts. 

No. 91. — Lawns and Lawn Making. 

Problems. 

1. Measure the lot at home on which the house 
stands. How many square yards in it? How many 
square rods? 

2. Draw a plan by scale of this lot, locating build- 
ings, trees, flower beds, etc. 

3. Is there any way in which this plan might be 
improved or the appearance of the grounds made 
more pleasing? 

4. Draw another plan showing location of build- 
ings, flower beds, trees, walks, and drives as you would 
Uke to have them arranged. 



CHAPTER XXIII 



SCHOOL GARDENING 



It has been a common practice in several European 
countries, for fully a century, to conduct gardens in 
connection with schools. This idea of making gar- 
dening a part of school work, is rapidly growing in 
favor in our own country. The garden is a matter 
of great practical importance to all people living in 
the country, and it can be made a useful adjunct to 
the work of almost any school, if intelligently man- 
aged. 

The study of agriculture has rightly been made a 
required* subject in the schools of some states, and 
this must include some attention to gardening. The 
home garden ought to be the best part of the farm. 
And no department of agriculture is so well calculated 
to develop in boys and girls the power of keen obser- 
vation and love for the beauty, variety and harmony 
which nature exhibits as that of gardening. There- 
fore, it is important that we do something with school 



178 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



gardening in order to assist and encourage home gar- 
dening. 

The size and shape of the school garden will depend, 
of course, upon the area and form of the lot. The 
nature and condition of the soil must be taken into 
account when we come to the decision of what shall 
be planted. 




GIRLS' SCHOOL GARDEN, YONKERS. N. Y. 

The school garden must not encroach upon the 
playground ; playgrounds • are an absolute necessity. 
If the school lot is very small, the corners and strips 
along the fences may be used for garden purposes. 
If the grounds are large enough, the following 



SCHOOL GARDENING 179 

arrangement is a good one: Place the flower-beds 
towards the front of the grounds, on each side of the 
front lawn. Back of the flower-beds, and next to the 
play-grounds, is a good location for shrubbery of vari- 
ous kinds. In the rear of the playground we may 
place the vegetable garden. Shrubs and vines may 
be planted along the back fence, with perhaps a bor- 
der of wild flowers, ferns, etc. We shall then have 



■ 




BOYS' SCHOOL GARDEN. YONKERS, N. Y. 

an arrangement like this, viz., front lawn, paths, 
flower-beds, playgrounds, vegetable garden, wild flow- 
ers, vines, etc. 

In the flower beds quite a variety of plants may be 
grown, but good sense will be necessary in their selec- 



180 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

tion ; success will depend greatly on this. Such hardy 
bulbs as tulips, crocuses, and narcissuses should be in- 
cluded for spring blooming. Peonies, iris, phlox, and 
other hardy perennials should have a place, as they 
survive from year to year with comparatively little 
trouble. Of annuals, only the more robust and easily 
grown should be attempted, such as asters, petunias, 
poppies, nasturtiums, and zinnias. Regard should 
always be had to the water supply, as it is hard to 
grow beautiful flowers in hot weather without plenty 
of water. A flower bed withering for want of moist- 
ure is a sorry sight. Weeds, which grow rapidly 
and rob the plants of light, water and food, should be 
carefully kept under. 

In preparing the ground for planting, great care 
and patience should be exercised in enriching it and 
thoroughly pulverizing the top soil. Care should 
also be taken not to plant the seeds too deep, and not 
to let the surface become too dry while the seeds are 
germinating. These are fundamental requirements in 
all gardening. 

List of Plants that May Be Grown. 

Vegetables: Peas, potatoes, sweet corn, pop corn, 
tomatoes, beans, lettuce, cabbages, cucumbers, radishes, 
beets, onions, parsnips, turnips, etc. 

Flowers, Perennials: Phlox, hollyhocks, sweet Wil- 



SCHOOL GARDENING 181 

Ham, iris, hemerocallis, columbine, monkshood, etc. 

Annuals: Asters, four-o-clocks, marigolds, petunias, 
nasturtiums, poppies, mignonette, sweet alyssum, phlox 
Drummondii, coreopsis, zinnias, sweet peas, etc. 

Bedding plants: Verbenas, geraniums, salvia, etc. 

The above list might be greatly extended, but these 
are the things of easiest culture and surest returns. Prob- 
ably no one will attempt to grow all of these in the same 
summer, but variety will be sought from season to sea- 
son. It is better to grow a few things well than to at- 
tempt more than can be given thorough attention. 

Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
Farmers' Bulletins. 

No. 218.— The School Garden. 
Extracts. 

No. 113. — Experimental Gardens and Grounds. 



CHAPTER XXIV 



HOME GARDENING 



What has been said about the school garden will, 
much of it, apply equally well to the management of 
the home flower garden. In connection with country 
schools, vegetable gardening will not often be under- 
taken, as that requires more room and is more nat- 
urally connected with the home life ; but city school 
children often develop great interest in the growing 
of vegetables. 

Every family in the country should pay great atten- 
tion to the garden, because of the profit and satisfac- 
tion which it afifords. No other part of the farm of 
equal area pays one-tenth as well, financially, as a 
well-cultivated garden. Yet the garden is very apt 
to be neglected, and left to itself by farmers generally, 
from the mistaken idea that other work is more im- 
portant. It is important, moreover, that the children 
in the home be trained to take an active part in the 
garden ; for this furnishes one of the best means for 
stimulating a love for the beautiful and inspiring 
things of life. The treatment of the subject of gar- 



HOME GARDENING 183 

dening in this book must necessarily be very general. 
Gardening includes something of agriculture, horti- 
culture, and floriculture. It is not advisable that the 
garden should be very large or elaborate, so that its 
care will become burdensome. The flower garden 
should not be located directly in front of the house, 
but at one side. It is not well to place a flower bed in 
the middle of the lawn. Neither should the front 
lawn be crowded with trees and shrubbery; there 
should be a good, clear stretch of grass, with the 
shrubbery around the skirts of it. The vegetable 
garden should be at the back of the house, or well to 
one side of the lawn and flower garden. It should 
be well fenced against poultry and other domestic 
animals. The soil should be well fertilized with barn- 
yard manure. Neglect of this is fatal to the best re- 
sults. Weeds will grow in any soil, but good 
vegetables require good soil as well as good cultiva- 
tion. In the preparation of the soil, and in planting, 
the following points should receive attention : 

(i) Plow carefully and well, so that all grass, 
weeds, manure, or litter will be thoroughly turned 
under. Do not plow when the ground is very wet. 

(2) Harrow and rake until the top soil is fine, re- 
moving sticks and stones. 

(3) The depth at which seeds should be planted 
depends, largely, upon the size of the seeds. Small 



184 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

seeds should be covered slightly but evenly. The 
character of the soil is also to be considered. In light, 
sandy soil, or in situations exposed to the wind, plant- 
ing should be deeper than under other conditions. 

(4) Many people err in building up the beds too 
high above the level of the paths, as the soil dries 
out rapidly when thus raised. If the beds can be 
worked from both sides, which is better, they may be 
made four or five feet wide. If they cannot be 
worked from both sides, three feet is about the limit 
of width. 

(5) The seeds should be planted in rows far 
enough apart to admit of passing a hoe freely be- 
tween them. Flower seeds should, as a rule, be 
planted in rows crosswise of the beds. Judgment 
should be exercised as to the time of planting. Onions, 
peas, and potatoes may be planted as early as the 
ground can be worked. Flower seeds, as a rule, 
should not be planted until the ground is warm and 
danger from frost is past. Sweet peas, however, may 
be planted early and very deep. All peas should 
be planted at least three, or even four, inches deep. 
They should be planted in rows running north and 
south and provided with proper support. 

(6) The transplanting of cabbages, tomatoes, etc., 
should be done on a cloudy day, or towards evening. 
Plants should be set rather deep, and shaded from 



HOME GARDENING 185 

the next day's sun by a shingle or other shield. 

(7) The surface of seed beds should not be al- 
lowed to become dry or hard during the time of 
germination. After plants are above the surface, the 
ground should be frequently stirred to prevent its 
baking or drying out, and to keep down weeds, which 
are much more easily killed while they are young. 
Properly thin out the plants. Great harm is done 
by over-crowding. This is one of the most common 

mistakes. 

(8) All vines, as cucumbers, melons, and squashes 
should be carefully watched as they show the first 
leaves, to protect them from the bugs. The best pro- 
tection is to sprinkle them, dry, with Hammond's 
''Slug Shot," a preparation which no gardener can af- 
ford^o be without, as it is especially useful for de- 
stroying the slugs on cabbages, currant and gooseberry 
bushes, and rose bushes. It is much safer as well as 
cheaper than paris green. For potatoes, however, 
nothing is so efifective as paris green in water. 
Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

No^ 94._The Vegetable Garden. 

No. 154.— The Home Fruit Garden: Preparation and 

Care 

No. 156.— The Home Vineyard, with Special Reference 

to Northern Conditions. 
No. 198.— Strawberries. 
No. 213.— Raspberries. 



ADDENDA 



(Explanation of Barn Plan on Opposite Page.) 

A — Feed shutes and ventilating shafts, sMiM feet. 
B — Feed bins, 3MiX7 feet. C — Hay mows, 20x40 
feet. D — Trap doors to stairs, 3x3 feet. F — Barn 
floor, 14x40 feet. G — Driveway, 10x55 feet. H — 
Horse stalls, 5x5 feet. I — Mangers, 3x5 feet. J — Al- 
leys, 5x15 feet. K — Alleys, 5x40 feet. L — Small 
feed spouts from bins. M — Mangers, 3^2^35 feet. 
O — Alleys, 2x15 feet. P — Cow spaces, 3^x4% feet 
R— Drop, 1x35 feet. S—S— Double doors. T— Win- 
dows hinged for ventilation. U — Alleys, 5x15 feet. 
V — Stairs to second floor. 

Suggested modifications of plan to suit convenience 
of builder: — Position and number of bins and feed 
shutes may be changed. Dimensions may be cut down 
by making alleys narrower. Horses may face wall. 
Partition may be left out. Doors may be hung on 
hinges instead of rollers, etc, etc. 



BARN PLAN 



187 





A 


.-, 


A 




' 


■B 








e 


f 




c 




B 










A 


^ 


A 





BE C ONI FLOOTtPLAH 



M 
J 

H 



M TIN 

^pp^ p p p p^**! 

5 ^ 

^ E S 

M T 



Fl R5T FLOOR FLAN 

PLAN FOR CONVENIENT TWO-STORY BARN. 
Dimensions 40x55 Feet. 



188 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



BARN VENTILATION 



In our efforts to provide warm and comfortable 
quarters for our stock, we have overlooked, in many 
cases, the most important matter of all, — proper ven- 
tilation. 

As we enter some stables on a winter's morning, 
after the barn has been closed all night, we are almost 
stifled by the odors and impurities that fill the air. 
These must be very harmful to the animals that are 
forced to breathe them over and over again. In such 
stables, no provision is made for admitting fresh air, 
or for drawing off that which has become charged 
with impurities and robbed of its life-giving oxygen. 
Without doubt, the alarming prevalence of tubercu- 
losis among cattle is largely due to this neglect. 

This neglected feature of barn construction is 
deemed worthy of special mention in this book. On 
the following pages will be found detail plans for a 
barn provided with an adequate system of ventilation. 

A — Cross section, through feed shutes and ventil- 
ating shafts, of the barn shown on preceding page. 
B — Cross section of the same barn, through ventilat- 



BARN VENTILATION 



180 










^^ 



VENTILATION PLAN. 

Note: It is the opinion of the writer, however, that per- 
fect ventilation cannot be secured without the use of arti- 
ficial heat or some other means of creating a draft. 




WINDOW VENTILATION PLAN. 

ing shafts, placed at the ends, on either side of the 



190 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

double doors. This method will, doubtless, be pre- 
ferred by some farmers, as it will allow of keeping 
feed shutes filled with hay, sufficient for several feed- 
ings. However, it is not a wise plan to leave hay 
thrown down in the stables, as it will absorb the im- 
pure air and bad odors of the barn. In both cases 
feed shutes must be kept closed, in order to insure 
proper draft to ventilating shafts. C — Vertical section 
through floor, feed shute and ventilating shaft, show- 
ing trap door closed to insure proper circulation of 
air. D — Same, showing trap door open for feeding. 
E — Cross section of same at the second floor. Size 
of shute, 3x314 feet. Size of ventilating shaft, 
1/2x3!/^ feet. F — Section through wall and window, 
showing sheet iron wind-shield, thrown back, and 
window open for summer ventilation. G — Same, 
showing shield in place for winter ventilation. 

Note I. This shield is made of sheet or galvanized 
iron, bent, as shown in sections E and E above, and 
screwed to the window frame. When in place it de- 
flects the air upward towards the ceiling, preventing 
drafts. The opening between this shield and the win- 
dow frame for the admission of air should be about 
two inches in width. When the shield is raised 
slightly, it allows the window to drop forward on its 
hinges at the bottom and open fully. 



BARN VENTILATION 101 

Note II. If round iron pipes are used for ventil- 
ating instead of flues, they should be not less than 
fourteen inches in diameter. Their tops may be 
covered with revolving hoods, specially constructed 
to create drafts. If less than four ventilating shafts 
are used, they should be large enough to have the 
same capacity. 

The bottoms of all ventilating shafts should open 
not more than one foot above the floor, and these 
openings should always be kept free from hay, straw 
or anything else that will prevent a free circulation 
of air. 

CORN AND STOCK JUDGING 

The following score cards for corn and stock 
judging are the ones in use at the University of Wis- 
consin and are here reproduced, by permission, with 
the hope that they will prove of value to those who 
are interested in these, more advanced, phases of 
agriculture. They are easily understood and require 
no additional explanation. 



192 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE. 

OFFICIAL CORN SCORE CARD 
Note: Ten ears of corn constitute a sample for scoring. 
EXPLANATION OF POINTS IN CORN JUDGING. 

1. Trueness to Type or Breed Characteristics: The ten 

ears of the sample should possess similar or like 
characteristics and should be true to the variety 
which they represent. 

2. Shape of Ear: The shape of the ear should conform 

to variety type, tapering slightly from butt to tip, 
but approaching the cylindrical. 

3. Color: a. Grain; b. Cob. Color of grain should be 

true to variety and free from mixture. White corn 
should have white cobs, yellow corn red cobs. 

4. Market Condition: The ears should be sound, firm, 

well matured and free from mold, rot or injuries. 

5. Tips: The tips of the ears should not be too tapering 

and should be well filled with regular, uniform 
kernels. 

6. Butts: The rows of kernels should extend in regular 

order over the butt, leaving a deep impression when 
the shank is removed. Opened and swelled butts 
are objectionable. 

7. Kernels: a. Uniformity of; b. Shape of. The kernels 

should be uniform in shape, size and color and true 
to the variety type. The kernels should be so 
shaped that their edges touch from tip to crown. 
The tip portion of the kernel is the richest in pro- 
tein and oil and hence of the highest feeding value. 
For this reason the tip portion should be full and 
plump. 

8. Length of Ear: Northern section 8 to 9 inches, cen- 

tral section 8^4 to 9^ inches, southern section SYi 
to 9>4 inches. Long ears are objectionable because 
they usually have poor butts and tips, broad, shal- 
low kernels, and hence a low percentage of corn 
to cob. 

9. Circumference of Ear: Northern section 6 to 6J/2 

inches, central section 6^4 to C).>4 inches, southern 
section Cy]^ to 7 inches. 



SCORE CARDS 



193 



10. a. Furrow between rows; b. Space between furrows 

at Cob. The furrow between the rows of kernels 
should be small. Space between kernels near the 
cob is very objectionable. 

11. Proportion of corn to cob: The proportion of corn' 

to cob is determined by weight; depth of kernels, 
size of cob and maturity all afifect the proportion. 

OFFlCIAIy CORN SCORE CARD 







I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


1 Trueness to Type 

or Breed char- 
acteristics 10 

2 Shape of ear 10 

3 Color: a. Grain . ., 5 


.... 









.... 






.... 




... 


b. Cob .... 5 


















4 Market condition. 10 

5 Tips 5 






.... 










— 


... 




6 Butts 5 




7 Kernels : a. Unifor- 

mityof 10 












b. Shape 

of 5 

8 Length of ear.... 10 

9 Circumference of 

ear . . 5 








... 


... 






.... 




.... 


10 Space: a. Furrow 
between 
rows ... 5 




b. Space be- 
tween 
kernels 
at cob. 5 
11 Proportion of Corn 

to Cob 10 






















Total 100 




- 


- 


—"^ 











1<)4 



ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 
BEEF CATTLE SCORE CARD 





Possi- 
ble 
Score 


Points Deficient 


SCALE OF POINTS 


Score 


Cor- 
rected 


GEXERAL APPEARANCE— 26 POINTS 
Weight, estimated lbs., 




8 

8 

1 
3 

2 

1 
1 

2 

1 

3 

4 

2 

1 
3 

6 
3 
6 
6 
6 
3 

4 

5 
3 
5 
4 

2 

2 






Form, straight top line and under- 
line; deep, broad, low set 

Q,uality, firm handling, hair fine, pli 
able skin, fine bone; evenly fieshed 

Style, active upstandinsr 





















HEAD AND NECK— 8 POINTS 

Muzzle, g-ood size, mouth large, lips 
thin, nostrils large 










. ... 






' 


Forehead, broad full 






Neck, thick, short; throat clean 

Ears medium size, fine texture 








FOREQUARTERS— 13 POINTS 

Shoulder Vein, full 






Shoulder, covered with flesh, compact 






Breast, wide; brisket prominent 

Dewlap, skin not too loose and 










Legs, straight, short; arm full; shank 






BODY— 28 POINTS 

Chest, full, deep, wide; girth large, 
fore-flank full 






Crops, full, even with shoulders 






Ribs, deep, arched, thickly fleshed... 
















Flank* full even with underline 






HINDQUARTERS — 23 POINTS 

Hips, smoothly covered, distance 

apart in proportion with other parts 

Rump, long, even, wide; tail head 










Pin Bones, not prominent, far apart. 
Thighs, full wide deep 








Tw^ist, deep plump 




Purse, full, indicating fleshiness.... 

Legs, straight, short, shank fine, 

smooth 










Total 


100 













SCORE CARDS 
DAIRY CATTLE SCORE CARD 



195 



SCALE OF POINTS 



GENERAL. APPEARANCE — 17 POINTS 

Weight, 800 to 1,000 lbs., estimated 
lbs., actual lbs. . 

Form, wedge shape as viewed from 
front, side and top 

Quality, hair fine, soft; skin mellow 
loose, medium thickness, secretion 
yellow; bone clean, fine 

Temperament, nervous. Indicated by 
marked refinement in head, neck 
and forequarters; backbone prom- 
inent 

HEAD AND NECK— 13 POINTS 

Muzzle, clean cut; mouth large; nos- 
trils wide 

Eyes, large, bright, full 

Face, clear cut, long, quiet expression 

Forehead, broad, slightly dishing. . . . 

Ears, medium size; yellow inside; 
fine texture 

Neck, fine, medium length; throat 

clean; light dewlap 

FOREaUARTERS— 7 POINTS 

Shoulder, light, sloping, very thin at 
top 

Breast, pointed; brisket light 

Legs, straight, short; shank fine. . 
BODY— 20 POINTS 

Chest, deep, and moderately wide. 

Ribs, broad, deep, wide apart; large 
barrel 

Back, prominent, open jointed 

Loin, broad with roomy coupling.... 
HINDarARTERS — 13 POINTS 

Hips, far apart, prominent; level 
with the back 

Rump, long, wide; pelvis, roomy.,.. 

Tail, set high, long, tapering, heavy 
switch 

Thighs, thin, long, wide apart; twist 
very open 

Escutcheon, spreading over thighs, 
extending high and wide; large 
thigh ovals 

Udder, broad, symmetrical, extend- 
ing well forward, well up between 
the thighs, free from fleshiness, 
well held up and quarters even in 
size 

Teats, good size, evenly placed 

Milk Veins, large, tortuous, branch- 
ing, milk wells large, numerous... 

Legs, straight, far apart, shank fine. 



Possi- 
ble 
Score 



Total 100 



Points Deficient 



196 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

DRAFT HORSE SCORE CARD 





Possi- 
ble 
Score 


Points Deficient 


SCALE OP POINTS 


Score 


Cor. 

reeled 


Age 








GENERAL APPEARANCE— 29 POINTS 

Heigrlit, estimated 








hands; actual.. 








Weight, over 1600 lbs.; estimated 
lbs., score according to age.. 

Form, broad, massive, evenly propor- 
tioned, symmetrical, blocky 

Quality, refined; bone clean, large, 
strong, tendons clean, defined, 
prominent; skin and hair, fine; 
"feather," if present, silky 

Action, walk; fast, elastic, regular, 
straight; trot; free, springy, bal- 
anced, straight 


6 
4 

6 

10 
3 

I 
1 

2 

3 

1 
2 
2 

2 

1 


















Temperament, energetic; disposition, 
good 






HEAD AND NECK— 8 POINTS 

Head, proportionate size, clean cut, 

well carried; profile straight 

31uzzle, neat; nostrils large, flexible; 
lips thin, even firm 








Eyes, bright, clear, full, same color.. 
Forehead, broad, full 




Ears, medium size well carried alert 




Louver Ja^v, angles wide, space clean . 
Neck, muscled, arched; throat-latch. 










FOREQUARTERS- 22 POINTS 

Shoulder, moderately sloping, smooth, 

snug, extending into back 

Arm, short, strong muscled, thrown 
back, well set 










Forearm, long, wide, clean, heavily 
muscled 






Knees, straight, wide, deep, strong, 






Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons 
clean defined prominent . ... 






Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, 
clean 





SCORE CARDS. 197 

DRAFT HORSE SCORE CARD— Continued 





Possi- 

ble 
Score 


Points Deficient 


SCALE OF POINTS. 


Score 


Cor- 
rected 


Pasterns, moderately sloping-, strong, 
clean 


3 

8 

2 

2 
2 
2 

1 

2 

8 
3 
2 
3 

2 

8 

2 
1 

2 

6 






Feet, larg-e, even size, sound; horn 
dense, waxy; soles concave; bars 
strong-, full; frogs large, elastic; 
heels wide, one-half length of toe, 
vertical to g-round 






BODY— 9 POINTS 

Chest, deep, wide; breast bone low; 
g-irth large 






Ribs, deep, well sprung; closely 
ribbed to hip 






Back, broad, short, strong, muscular. 
Loins, short, wide, thick muscled.... 






HINDQUARTERS— 32 POINTS 

Hips, broad, smooth, level, well 




Croup, wide, heavily muscled, not 
markedly drooping 




Thighs, deep, broad, strong, muscular 
Quarters, plump with muscle deep.. 
Stifles, large, strong, muscular, clean 
Gaskins (lower thighs), long, wide, 
clean, heavily muscled 







Hocks, large, strong, wide, deep, 
clean, well set 






Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons 
clean defined, prominent 






Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean 
Pasterns, moderately sloping, strong, 






Feet, large, even size, sound; horn 
dense, waxy, soles concave; bars 
strong, full; frogs large, elastic; 
heels wide, one-half length of toe. 
vertical to ground 












Total 


100 













108 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 

SWINE SCORE CARD 



SCALE OF POINTS 



GENERAL APPEARANCE — 25 POINTS 

"Weight, estimated 

actual lbs., according to age 

Form, deep, broad, low, long, sym- 
metrical, compact, standing square- 
ly on legs 

Quality, bone clean; hair silky; skin 
fine 

Disposition, quiet 

HEAD AND NECK— 10 POINTS 

Snout, medium length, not coarse.... 
Eyes, large, mild, full, bright, wide 

apart 

Forehead, broad 

Face, short, cheeks full 

Ears, medium size, fine, soft 

Jowl, strong, neat, broad 

Neck, thick, medium length 



FOREQUARTERS — 13 POINTS 

Shoulder, broad, deep, full, compact 

on top 

Breast, wide, prominent 

Legs, straight, short, strong; feet 

medium size 



BODY— 32 POINTS 

Chest, deep, broad; girth large 

Sitles, deep, lengthy, closely ribbed.. 
Back, broad, straight, thickly and 

evenly fleshed 

Loin, thick, wide 

Belly, straight 

Flank, even with underline 



HINDQUARTERS— 20 POINTS 

Hips, wide apart, smooth 

Rump, long, wide, evenly fieshed 

straight 

Hams, heavily fleshed, deep, wide.... 
liess, straight, short, strong; feet 



medium size. 



Total 



Possi- 


Points Deficient 


ble 
Score 


Score 


Cor- 
rected 


6 






8 






6 






5 






1 






1 


. . 




1 






1 






1 






2 






3 






6 






2 






5 






7 






8 






7 






5 






3 






2 






3 






4 






8 






5 












100 


1 



SCORE CARDS 
MUTTON SHEEP SCORE CARD 



199 





Per- 
fect 
Score 


Points Deficient 


SCALE OF POINTS 


Score 


Cor- 
rected 


Age Teeth 


6 

10 
6 

3 

2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
3 

2 
3 
3 
2 

3 

4 
4 
3 

3 

3 
4 
3 
4 

3 

3 
3 

4 


4 
4 






GENERAL APPEARANCE— 24 POINTS 
Weight, estimated 




actual lbs., according- to age 




Form, low, long-,- symmetrical, com- 
pact, and evenly covered with firm 
flesh 






aiiality, clean bone; silky hair 










HEAD AND NECK— 9 POINTS 

Muzzle, fair size; nostrils large; lips 
thin* mouth large 






Eyes, full; bright 






Face, short bold expression 










Ears, fine erect 






Neck, thick, short; throat clean 

FOREQ,UARTERS— 13 POINTS 
Shoulder Vein, full 
















Chest, deep, wide, large g-irth 

Brisket, full prominent, breast wide. 
Legs, straight, short, wide apart, 
strong; forearm full, shank smooth 
BODY— 13 POINTS 















Loin broad thick 












Flank, low, thick, making underline 






HINDQUARTERS— 17 POINTS 
TTin« c!TYir>ntli far nnnrt 
























Legs, Straight, short, strong; shank 






CONSTITUTION— 10 POINTS 






^kin ninlr onlnr 






Fleece, dense and even over body, 






WOOL— 14 POINTS 

Quantity, long, dense, even 

Quality, fine, soft, pure, even 

Condition, bright, strong, clean 


















Tntal 


100 













INDEX. 



The numbers refer to pages. 



Accounts, how kept, I54> 
155, 156, 157, 158. 
cash, 154, 155- 
personal, 156, 157. 
produce, 158. 
Acids, defined, 23. 

carbonic, 18, 24, 26. 
hydrochloric, 18. 
list of, 18. 
phosphoric, 18, 27, 37» 

48. 
sulphuric, 18. 
Addenda, 186. 
Ammonia, 24, 26, 27. 
Annuals, 85. 
Arbor Day, celebration of, 

172. 
Arrangement of farm build- 
ings, 145, 146- 
mistakes in, 145. 
Arrangement of farm 
grounds, 146, 147. 

Babcock milk tester, 122, 
124. 



Barn, plan of, 186, 187. 

ventilation of, 188, 189, 
190. 
Bacteria, 49. 

around the dairy, 120, 

121, 122, 123. 

in the milking utensils, 

122, 123. 

on roots of legumes, 49. 
Beet pulp as a feeding stuff, 

136, 106. 
Beets and tobacco compared, 

135, 136. 
Biennials, 85. 
Bordeaux mixture, 79, 81. 
Bull-thistle, 86. 
Burdock, 86. 
Butter, 117, 118. 

Canada thistle, 86. 
Carbohydrates, defined, lOO, 

lOI. 

amount to be fed, 102, 

104. 
feeding value -of, 102. 
illustration of, loi. 



202 



EI.EMETARY AGRICULTURE 



Carriage house, 145, 146. 
Cheese, 117, 118. 
Circumference of a circle, 
150. 

how to find, 150, 
Clay, Z2, 2,2>- 
Clover, 33, 36, 39, 45, 48, 51. 

as a feeding stuff, 112. 

compared with other 
feeds, 112. 

restoration of nitrogen 
by, 48, 49. 
Common dock, 86. 
Corn judging, 192, 193. 
Cotyledons, defined, 10. 

use of, 10. 
Couch grass, 86. 
Cows as a source of reve- 
nue, 113. 

why fed, 99. 
Creditor, 156, 157. 
Crops, 36. 

appearance when fertil- 
ity is lacking, 36. 

rotation of, 70. 

sample crop, rotation 

of, 70. 



Dairy value of cows, 124. 
Definition of percentage, 

124. 
Debtor, 156, 157. 



Dicotyledons, defined, II. 

illustration of, 12. 
Diversified farming, 11 1. 

flexibility of, 114. 
Drainage, 62. 

kinds of, 63. 

reasons for, 62, 63. 

tile, 6:^, 64. 

when to use open 
ditches, 65. 

Effect of dairying on soil 

fertility, 112. 
Effect of grain raising on 

soil fertility, 68, 69, 70. 
Embryo, defined, 10. 

illustration of, 10. 
Energy, defined, 99. 

Farm buildings, 146, 147, 

148, 149, 150. 
Farm separator, 118, 122. 
Fat, TOO. 

feeding value of, 104. 
reasons for putting in 
separate class, 104. 
Feeds, 100. 

Classification of, 100. 
difference between pro- 
tein and carbohy- 
drates, loi. 
reasons for feeding, 98. 



INDEX 



Feeding standards, 107. 
economic feeding, 105. 
relation of protein to 

carbohydrates, 104. 
rule for making ra- 
tions, 104, 105. 
Feeding stuffs, 106, 107. 
table showing digestible 

nutrients in, 106, 107. 
Fertilizers, 36. 

chemical effect of, 39. 
commercial, 37, 38, 39, 

40. 
effect of, 37, 38, 39, 40. 
essential, 33. 
kind of, 36, 37, 38, 39- 
legumes as, 48, 49, 51, 

52. 
perfect, 36. 
Fertilizing substances, de- 
fined, 33. 

table showing amount 

of in farm crops, 28. 
table showing amount 

of in average soils, 

34. 
table showing amount 

of in fertilizers, 41. 

table showing amount 

of in dairy products, 

46. 

table showing amount 

of in farm animals, 

46. 



Formaldehyde solution, 81. 

Forestry defined, 161. 

importance of, 162. 
Forest, 161, 162, 163, 164, 
165, 166, 167, 168. 

destruction 'of, 162, 163. 

fires, 163. 

how preserved, 164, 
166, 168. 

how replaced, 164. 

uses of, 162, 163. 

Germs sent out by U. S. 
Dept. of Agriculture, 51. 

Handy values to use, 14, 15. 
Home gardening a neces- 
sity, 182. 
flower garden, 179, 183. 
list of plants for, 181, 

182. 
making beds in, 184. 
preparing soil for, 183, 
185. 
■ sowings seeds in, 184, 
value of, 182. 
vegetable garden, 182, 

183, 184. 
vines in, 185. 
what it includes, 183. 
Home grounds, plan of, 146. 
Hogs, why fed, 103. 
Horses, why fed, 99. 
foundered, 91. 



204 



ELEMETARY AGRICULTURE 



House, 145, 14^, 147 
Humus, 32. 

Insects, 75, 76, Tj, 78. 

how to destroy, TJ, 78. 

leaf eating, 'j']. 

life history of, 76, 77. 

sapsucking, 77. 

spraying mixtures for, 
81. 

stages of growth, 76, 77. 

when damage is done, 
76. 

when eggs are laid, 76. 

where eggs are laid, ']']. 
Iron rust, 23. 

Landscape gardening, prin- 
ciples of, 171, 172. 
Legumes, list of, 48, 49. 
as feeds, 112. 
as fertilizers 49, 50, 51, 

52. 
restoration of nitrogen 
by, 45, 48. 
Loam, 32, 33. 

Measurements, 150. 
Milk, care of, 119, 120. 

odors in, 119. 

tastes in, 119. 
Mullein, 86. 
Mustard, wild, 85. 



Nitrogen, defined, 49. 

free nitrogen, 49, 

in the air, 49. 

in the soil, 24. 

nitrates, 24. 

principal ingredients in 
protein, loi. 

restoration of by leg- 
umes, 49. 
Noxious weeds, 86. 

Onions, culture of, 139, 140, 
141, 142. 

transplanting of, 140. 

varieties of, 142. 
Ox-eye daisy, 86. 

Parsnip, wild, 86. 
Perennial, 86. 
Pigweed, 85. 
Plant diseases, 78. 

blight, 78. 

rot, 78. 

rust, 7». 

smut, 78. 

solution for soaking 
seed in, to prevent, 
81. 

spraymg solution for, 
81. 
Plant foods, defined, 9. 

list of, 18. 

source of, 26. 



INDEX 



205 



Potato culture, 138, 139. 

Potato rot, cure for, 81, 139. 

Potash, 26, 33, 38, 39. 

Poultry, feed and care of, 
127, 128, 129, 130, 131. 
chickens, 128, 129, 130. 
ducks, 127, 128, 131. 
geese, 127, 130, 131. 
turkeys, 127, 131. 

Protein, defined, loi. 

amount of required 
daily by farm ani- 
mals, 107. 

feeding value of, 102, 
103. 

illustrations, lOl. 



Ragweed, 85. 

Ration, balanced, 104. 

rule for making, 104, 
105. 

Requisites for plant growth, 
13- 

Rotation of crops, 70. 
kind to use, "72. 
reasons for using, 70, 

71. 
sample of, 70. 



Rule for finding, 150. 

area of a circle, 150. 

area of a triangle, 150. 

circumference of a cir- 
cle 150. 

hypothenuse of a right 
triangle, 150. 

Sand, 18, 24. 

School grounds, 171, 172, 
173, 174, 175. 
arrangement of, 171, 

172, 173- 
decoration of, 172. 
School gardening, impor- 
tance of, 177. 
in Europe, 177. 
requires judgment, 177, 
178. 
School gardening, arrange- 
ment of, 177, 178, 179- 
plants which may be 

grown, 180, 181. 
preparation of soil for, 

180. 
water supply for, 180; 
weeds in, 180. 
Sheep, why fed, 102. 
Silage, how spoiled, 148, 
149, 150. 

illustrations, 148, 149. 
plan for, 149. 
ventilation of, 149, 150. 



200 



ELEMETARY AGRICULTURE 



Sorrel, 86. 
Soda, i8, 23, 25. 
Soil inoculation, 51, 52. 
Soils, 30, 31, 32, 33. 

agencies in making, 31, 
32. 

how made, 31, 32, 

kinds of, 32. 
Starch, loi. 
Stock, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93. 

care of, 89, 90. 

diseased, 90. 

neglected, 91. 

table showing value of 
manure from, 94. 

scrub, 89, 91, 92. 

well bred, 92, 93. 
Stock judging, 194, 195, 196, 
197, 198, 199. 

beef cattle, 194. 

dairy cattle, 195, 

draft horses, 196, 197. 

mutton sheep, 199. 

swine, 198. 
Storage of food in the seed, 
10, II, 12, 13. 

experiment to show, 10, 
II, 12. 

illustration, 10, 12. 

use of, 10, II. 
Sugar, a carbohydrate, loi, 
135, 114- 



Sugar beet culture, 135, 136, 
137- 

Sugar beets, 135, 136, 139. 
as a feeding stuff, 130, 

114. 
as a source of revenue, 
136. 

Sweet clover, 85. 

Tiles, 6z, 64, 65, 66. 

depth they should be 

placed in the ground, 

64. 
table showing average 

cost of, 66. 

Tillage, defined, 54. 

depth of, 55- 
importance of, 54, 56. 
reasons for, 54, 55, 56, 
57, 58, 59. 
Tobacco culture, 133, 134, 

135. 
farming, III. 

Too little plant food, 26. 

Too much plant food, 26. 

Tool house, 145, 146. 



INDEX 



207 



Trees, 174- 

handling of while plant- 
ing, 174, 175. 

how planted, 174, i75- 

list which may be suc- 
cessfully grown, 175. 

use of water in plant- 
ing, 175- 

where procured for 
school planting, i75» 
176. 
Tubercles, 49, 50. 

illustration, 44, 50. 

on clover roots, 50, 51 • 

Wood lot, 166, 167, 168. 

as a storehouse of 

moisture, 168, 169. 
as a home for birds, 

169. 
as a home for game, 

169. 
burning brush in, 168. 
care of, 168, 169. 
importance of, 166. 
pasturing the, 166, 16S. 
replanting, 168. 



Worn-out soil, defined, 27. 
what it lacks, 27. 

Water, 18. 

Capillary, 57, 58. 
free, 57, 58. 
illustration, 19. 
surface, 62. 

table showing propor- 
tions of in farm 
crops, 21. 
underground, 57, 58, 62 
use of to plants, 20. 

Weeds, classes of, 85. 

life history of, 85, 86. 
methods of fighting, 8,S- 

86. 
why objectionable, 84. 

Weight per bushel of farm 

produce, 14. 
Whey, 117. 



MAY 3 19^>e 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




00D27733037 






